Mahasthangarh A Reappraisal

Sumanapal Bhikkhu

The village Mahasthan is situated in union Raninagar under the police station Sibgonj of Bogra district and is 11 km north of the district headquarters. A feeder road connects the village with Bogra Rangpur highway. The nearest airport is situated at Sayedpur. The place is full of mounds, monasteries, temples, reservoirs, temples and a citadel. The latter is locally known as Mahasthangarh. From this area a large amount of relics belonging to different ages and schools has been recovered from the beginning of the twentieth century. From these evidences we can infer that a lost city is buried under the ruins of Mahasthan and its outskirts.

There is a legend which tells us about a darbesh (a holy person belonging to Islam) named Shah Sultan Mahmud Balkhi Mahisawaror who arrived at Mahasthangarh riding a fish from Bacteria or Balkh of Afghanistan. At that time the region of Mahasthan was ruled Parasurama Nara Simha a descendant of the Bhoja Gauda dynasty. The darbesh requested the king to grant him a piece of land so that he could set his prayer mat in order to perform his prayer. The king granted the request. But when the prayer mat expanded to touch the contiguous area of the royal palace a fight started between the king’s soldiers and Mahisawar and his entourage. In the battle the king was defeated and the rule of the last non-Muslim king ended at Mahasthangarh.

This archaeological site was first discovered by Francis Buchanan Hamilton who came to this place in the year 1808. C. J. Odonell, E.V. Westmacott, Baveridge and Alexander Cunningham followed suit respectively. It was Alexander Cunningham who carried out the initial exploration in the area. Then he followed the itinerary record of Xuan Zang, the celebrated Chinese monk, Kalahana’s Rajatarangini, and the account of Tibetan Lama Taranatha he came to the conclusion that the site was the capital of Pundravardhana. It is almost certain that Pundranagar was the original name of the citadel and the present name of Mahasthan originated later.

Interested prolocutors started excavation in the site and among them the most important was Batavyal and he was a magistrate. In 1897 he visited the place several times and made notes about it. Mr. K.C. Nandi, an engineer of P.W.D. arranged an excavation in 1907 at a point named Khodarpather Bhita or platform of the stone gifted by God. But the digging did not supply much information. It was under K.N. Dikshit an officer of the then Archaeological Survey of India that excavation started at Mahastrhan proper for the first time. From the excavation staging bricks having average size of 25’3 cm., x21’3cmx 4 cm, beads of semi-precious stones,toy figurines made of terracotta , common medieval ware etc. were unearthed. In 1928- 1929 excavation revealed traces of impoverished base ruins that resembled temples in Bairagir Bhita. Two sculptured sandstone walls were also salvaged from the ruins. After that excavation took place between the years 1934-1936. Then excavation resumed in the place in the sixties of the twentieth century after the lapse of three decades. After that excavation took was carried out in the area in the eighties of the last century.  In this excavation digging was conducted in different parts of the east and north rampart.  The final report of the excavation has not been published yet. In 1988-89 at a point located 442 m west of the north east a gateway was exposed but no report of this excavation is available now. In 1991 in the east rampart at a little distance from the south east corner a ruinous gateway was revealed. There we find traces of construction and reconstruction for three periods. The first period was from 8^th to 9^th century, the second period was from 10^th   to 11^th century, and the third period was from 14^th to 15^th century.

Bangladesh and France jointly conducted an excavation in the area located between thegateway mentioned above and Bairagir Bhita and in other places of the area between 1992-1998.The excavations had in all 18 archaeological levels. The joint venture started in the year 1992 after a contract that was formed between the Ministry of Cultural Affairs of Bangladesh and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France. The findings are mentioned below:

1.      Structural activities: flimsy wallings of non descript variety built in bricks of reused type.

Associated minor findings: glazed ware, glass bangle, metal fragments, cone beads, etc.

Remarks: corresponds to level 17-18

2.      Structural activities: In this late phase we see new city walls made with reused variety of material

Associated Minor Findings:  common ware, stamped ceramics,

Remarks: corresponds to levels 12-16

3.      Structural Activities: related with terracotta tiles, brick dust etc.

Associated Minor Findings: common ware, terracotta moulded plaques, copper cast coins of uninscribed variety.

Remarks: corresponds to levels 10-11

4.      Structural Activities: in the initial phase associated with mud floor of compact beaten earth.

Associated Minor Findings: mainly common ware, polished ware, fine red ware, typical Yakshi figures

Remarks: corresponding to levels 5-9

5.      Associated Minor Findings: a piece of black and red ware shred, N.B.P.W. lipped bowls, footed bowl and beakers, a big jar of red ware

Remarks: Associated with levels 1-4.

The Joint Venture between France and Bangladesh has proved fruitful. But there are still a lot of problems to be solved.

The relics so far unearthed in Mahasthangarh belong mostly to Hindu and Buddhist religion. Only a few are related to the Muslims. On the light of the relics recovered from the place we may come to the conclusion that Mahasthangarh initially was an administrative headquarter that in a later period assumed religious significance.

Many relics have also been discovered just outside the citadel. The place is called Govindabhita or the mound of the Hindu god Govinda. Excavation at this site was conducted in three phases: In 1928-29, 1934-1935 and in 1960. The site was near the river Karotoya which is now in a moribund condition.

The earliest occupation period has supplied us with only a few uninscribed types of cast coins, a circular seal with Brahmi scripts on it, and a few yakshi figurines which shows the influence of the Sunga style.  There are three other periods of occupation and they were Period 1: assigned to the 5^th century A.D. Period 2: datable to the 6^th -7^th century A.D. Period 3: datable to the 8^th -9^th century. There is also a fourth period which is related to the Muslim rulers of Delhi and Gouda. So we may reach the conclusion that the occupation in Govinda Bhita ranged from the 3^rd century B.C. to the 15^th century A.D.

Excavation was also conducted in a mound which has two names: Totaram Panditerdhap or mound of the scholar Totaram and Vihardhap or mound of a monastery. The site is about 6 km northwest of the citadel. Here the remains of a monastery as well as plaques and human heads made of terracotta have been unearthed. They appear to be the product of the 7^th and 8^th century. We find a line of monastic cells in each wing of the monastery. Each cell contains narrow corridor in front of it. Excavation has unearthed some coins which were of the period from 1359 to 1387 A.D. and bore the mark of Sultan Sikandar Shah.

Bhasu Vihara locally known as Narapatirdhap, is a complex of two rectangular monasteries and a semi-cruciform shrine of the Post-Gupta period. In the village Bhasu Vihar situated 1.5 km northwest of Totaram Panditerdhap we come across five mounds of medium size. To the local people it is known as Narapatirdhap or the mound of a ruler. Perhaps a moat surrounded it in the past because we can still see the mark of it. In this area digging took place between the periods 1973-74 to 1975-1976. During excavation the ruins of a two monasteries and a temple was unearthed. One of them was lying on the western sector of the area under excavation. We can enter it through an in- centre gateway from the east. It had 26 monastic cells and 4 wings as well as open courtyard in the middle. There is another monastery located towards 22.86 m of this monastery the remains of another monastery which faces south. This monastery had four wings and 30 monastic cells. We can find the remains of brick built building southeast of these two monasteries. The area of the building is 28mx 26.59 m. Cunningham claimed it to be the site of Po-shi-po monastery the mention of which we find in the annuls of the celebrated Chinese traveller Xuag Zang. This claim needs a large amount of verification.

Monastery 1 Built of burnt bricks set in mud mortar, this was roughly rectangular in plan, measuring 148.13m (north-south) by 139m (east-west). Twenty-six monastic cells, each measuring roughly 11m by 10m, were arranged on the four sides of a square courtyard. The gateway complex, set in the middle of the east wing, presented an imposing facade. A pillared entrance hall with an open front porch gives access to an inner hall that was placed in the same alignment as the cells. Two guardrooms flanked the outer hall.

Monastery 2 lies to the northeast of Monastery 1 and was broadly similar in plan. Monastic cells are set at the back of a veranda around an open courtyard, access to which was provided by a single gateway. This monastery had 30 cells arranged in the following fashion: 7 each in the east and west wings; 8 in the north wing, excluding a larger hall in the centre; and 8 in the south wing, excluding the inner entrance hall. The gateway was projected from the middle of the south wing, as the shrine of the monastic complex lay in that direction, and on the north and west there was a deep depression marking possibly a river bed or swamp. Otherwise, an eastern entrance is the regular feature of the Buddhist monasteries in Bengal. The outer entrance hall of the gateway had two massive brick pillars in the middle and two flanking guardrooms.

The Central Shrine The main shrine of this Buddhist complex lay in the south-eastern part of the mound, south of the monastery 2 and to the south-east of monastery 1. It was a semi-cruciform shrine with terraced ambulatory passages. It was entered from the west. The assembly hall or the mandapa was in the centre of the shrine. There were three ambulatory passages at three heights. At the level of the lowermost terrace the outer facade of the shrine was decorated with bas-reliefs made of terracotta plaques.

Apart from the structural remains of these monasteries and the temple, the excavations (1973-74, 1998) yielded Bronze images, terracotta plaques, decorated bricks and inscribed terracotta sealing, apart from the usual range of minor antiquities including pottery. More than 60 bronze images have been recovered, mostly from inside the cells. Although belonging to the late occupational level of the site, some of them could have been fashioned earlier and preserved in the monastery. All the images are said to have had back slabs and high pedestals. They represent the Buddha or Dhyani Buddha, Bodhisattva and Bodhishaktis. The images of Aksobhya are said to be more numerous among the Dhyani Buddha figures. In the range of the Bodhisattva figures, Avalokiteshvara is more common and the images of the different varieties of Tara dominate the range of female figures. No large, life-like bronze image has been found, but a large and inscribed pedestal suggests that such figures existed. Some images are inscribed and all of them have one or two inscribed sealings attached to the back of the back-slab. It has been observed that the elongated slim body, thin waist, broad chest and graceful developed features recall the classical Pala art, somewhat different from those of Maynamati which are characterised by more squat body and simple to crude style.

Human figures, animals and birds, and various geometric and floral compositions dominate the basic themes of the terracotta plaques. A large number of ornamental bricks, which were used to decorate the outer wall of the shrine along with terracotta plaques, have been obtained. The common designs are the lotus petal, stepped pyramid, dental edge, wavy lines, floral and chain motifs; the most common designs are lotus petal and stepped pyramid as we find at Maynamati Paharpur and other Buddhist sites. More than 250 inscribed terracotta sealings, out of which more than a hundred are decipherable, have been obtained in excavations.

 Cunningham identified this monastery with the Po-Shi-Po mentioned by Xuag Zang, the 7th century Chinese pilgrim who found no less than 700 monks inhabiting the place. Some scholars disagree on the ground that it is not possible to accommodate 700 monks mentioned by Xung Zang in 56 cells found at Bhasu Vihara. But it should be remembered that the excavations at Bhasu Vihara have been limited only to the upper levels, dated to the tenth-eleventh century A. D. and have not at all reached the seventh century levels of Xuag Zang.

The archaeological site locally known as Lakhindarer Medh or the mound of the legendary merchant Lakhindar is another important excavated mound situated in the suburb of Mahasthangarh. It is also known by another name- Behular Basar Ghar or the compartment in which Behula would spend her first night with her husband after their marriage. Another archaeological site is Gokul Medh or the mound of Gokul which is located 3km south of the citadel. Excavation took place here for the first time between 1934 and1936. Digging has unearthed the remains of a curious structure. Here we find traces of two building periods. For the earlier period we find a rectangular plan that face west. Then another rectangular room with a porch on the west was added to it. After excavation a small intrusive cell was unearthed and it contained a human skeleton.

Kanser Dhap or place of a man named Kansa is another important mound in the area where excavation took place. Here the excavators have come across 12 layers within a deposit 3.31m. The site represents a single culture period which was occupied repeatedly for a long time from 6^th to 7^th century A.D.

Mangalkot or bethel of benefaction is another mound situated about 1 km away in the village Chengispur to the west of the citadel. The treasure hunter who dug the mound in 1974 caused a massive destruction to it. Regular excavation started in the site in the period 1980-1983. Consequently base ruins of some ransacked brock built structures were unearthed. A large number of terracotta pieces have also been recoveredfrom the mound. Among them we find figures of both men and women and those of elephants are in plenty. All human figures have a snake hood over their heads. We find the influence of Gupta sculptural art in the dress countenance and the ornaments of the human figurines.

Another mound Skandherdhap is situated 3.5 km away from the citadel towards the south of the citadel near the Bogra Rangpur highway. It is located in the village Baghopara. Now the mound is 96m long from north to south 54 m wide from east to west and 3.12m high at its highest point. Its top is flat and its sides are sloping. Several brickbats and bricks are found in the surface area of the mound. That the mound still contains the structural vestiges of a damaged building is almost clear. In 1934 an excavation programme took place in this mound. Consequently a Kartika image made of sandstone and a partial fabric of a lost brick built building was unearthed. Scholars are of the opinion that the present day village of Baghopara was the south eastern suburb of ancient Pundranagara.

There are three more mounds in the western suburbs which are partly excavated. One of them is Godaibaridhap or the mound that once accommodated the house of a man called Godai. It is situated 1.5km southwest of the citadel. In course of excavation that took place in 1994-1995 the ruins of an east facing damaged building was unearthed.  On the building we can still find signs of constructions and reconstructions. Experts are of the opinion that the earliest construction belonged to 5^th or 6^th century. During the Pala period in Bengal and Bihar a pavement was added on its east. The fragment of an inscriptional stone written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language has also been discovered. We can trace the characteristics of Sudharmita prevalent from 5^th to 6^th centuries onwards.

Another important site is Salivahana Rajarbari or the house of king Salivahana. This mound is located in the village Arora.  Excavation has unearthed then remains of a brick built monastery in this place.  Another important architectural site is Khulnardhap or the mound of a lady called Khullana who was the wife of the merchant Chandswadagara. This site is situated in the village Chengispur. Here the remains of a temple have been discovered.

In the neighbourhood of Mahasthangarh also we can find many mounds that are still unexcavated. Among them mention may be made of the following:

On the southeast: Bairagirdhap, Failardhap, Kumragaridhap, Balaidhap, in the village Barasaralpur, Dhanmatirdhap in the village Hazra dighi.

On the west: Masordhap, Madarirdargadhap, liznardhap, Jogirdhap. Apart from that many mounds and reservoirs can be found in villages like Palasbari, Mathura, and Bamanapar On the northwest: Eidgahdhap, Purba Fakirparadhap, Khalipaparadhap, and kumabaradhap in the village Ghagarduar, Chagalnaidadhap, in the village Dakshin Shyampur, Dolmanchain in the village Daulatpur, Nishanghata in the village paanatrik in the village Bhasuvihar. On the south: Nandaparadhap in village Barbakpur, Chanderdhap in village Hukumpur, as well as Burir than on the southwest: Peer Borhan Ali Majhar On the east: Gaji Kalurbari in the village Sastimula Extinct mounds: Juraintaladhap, Rastaladhap, and Sastitaladhap.

There is a pile of bricks, brickbats, postherds, as well as other fragmentary objects that were used regularly. Here we can find signs of sparse walling. There are some reservoirs of different sizes. Among them mention may be made of Chunar Dighi, Sabdal Dighi, Jhijrailer Pukur, Sasanka Dighi, Sagar Dighi, etc. Besides, one more reservoir encircles many of the mounds. Deeperdhap is the most important example of this. On the east west and north of it we can find three reservoirs, namely Kannamara Beel, Adath Beel, and Chota Adath Gola Beel respectively. Experts believe that different semi-autonomous communitiesoriginate in this area at different periods around Mahasthangarh.

By accident a sculptural piece was exposed in 1991 at a place which is located 3.5 km of the citadel. It was as standing Buddha in full front view. It wears an ascetic robe or sanghati in such a style that all the bodily limbs can be seen distinctly. This bears the traits of Gupta art.

Another important mound is located at the height of 4m on the west bank of the river Karotaya. We mention it as Uttar Gokuldhap because it is situated in the northern sector of the village Gokul. Gupta Bila, Kumir Bila, and Kakla Bila are the three reservoirs that surround this citadel. There are twenty reservoirs of different sizes. But the mound is now in a decaying condition. A few flakes of quartz, semi-precious stone beads, and terracotta figurines belonging to the Sunga- Kushana era have been unearthed from here.

Bhimer Jangal is another important archaeological site of the area. It is a massive earthern rampart. Excavators have discovered its remains over villages like Baghapora, Gokul, Ghagarduar, Bhasu Vihar, Daulatpur and Secendrabad. But in reality it occupies a distance of 45 km from Bogra to Rangpur. Experts are of the opinion that Bhima the ruler of Kaivarta dynasty (1005A. D.-1100 A. D.) built this rampart as a defensive wall for his newly gained independent area. The Kaivartas gained supremacyin this area by defeating the Pala king Mahiapala 2 but they were dispossessed by another Pala king Rampala. Another group of historians hold the view that the Muslim rulers built this as a road that connected Rajsahi with Rangpur. 

However, it may be noted in this connection that all the names given above belong to the modern period. They do not have any genuine link with any of the mounds. But in this connection we should discuss the mound Yogibhavan. Around 18^th and 19^th centuries a group of temples were built in this area as an akhra which means congregational centre of the yogi sect. From all these descriptions we find several suburbs around Mahasthangarh. On the west Palasvrindaka-Palasbari-Bamanpara, on the south Gopagriha-Gokul, and on the south east Skandhanagar –Baghpora. Experts have not yet discovered the historic names of other suburbs.  

A lot of inscriptional evidences have been discovered and they deserve special mention. They implicitly tell us the history of Mahasthangarh.

A.    Inscriptional evidences: Among this class we may include a 4cm4mmx 5cm7mm lime stone slab. On it we may find six lines written in Brahmi script and Magadhan Prakrit language. It was a product of circa 4^th -3^rd century B.C. There is also a black stone of 1300 A.D. on which is written an Arabic text in Tughra style of calligraphy.

B.     Coins: Excavators have recovered various kinds of coins from this area. A disfigured gold coin was found which was believed to be of the Kushana period. Some coins issued by the Guptas and by the Muslim rulers have also been found.

C.     Ceramics: The ceramics of Mahasthan can be grouped under two headings namely black slipped ware and typical medieval ware.

D.    Sculptures: Next we have sculptural pieces wrought in terracotta, stone and bronze. Among them we may find images of both Hindu and Buddhist gods and goddesses. They range from 8^th to 10^th century A.D. Of them we may mention an Agni, a Nairita, a Kanyakumari, or damsel in prayer pose, a Narasima, a Kartika, and two Buddhas. 

E.     Terracotta plaques: A number of terracotta plaques have been discovered from the area.

E1.  There are some plaques which depict the Yaksha cult deities. Among them in a   number of smaller pieces we find the yakshis standing with their hands placed on their waist or in the ekimbo mudra. We find them lavishly dressed. They exhibit characteristics of the Sunga cultural period. A very special piece has been recovered from this area which shows a winged deity. This type of piece has been unearthed in various arheological sites of the Gangetic valley namely Chandraketugarh, Kauasambi, Basarah, and Tamluk.

E2. There are some plaques which show the artistic temperament of the Gupta Kusana.  They have a rectangular shape. They are of two broad types when classified from the artistic stand point namely Group1 and Group 2. Plaques belonging to the first Group are built of well levigated clay. Most of them are preserved well. Group 2 exemplifies a morbid temperament. Their motifs reflect the life of Bengal its folk culture, its flora and fauna. The motifs of the terracotta plaques found in Mahasthan include various celestial spirits like apsaras, Garuda, Kirtimukha, etc. Apart from the plaques mentioned above, there is one which is circular in shape and uncommon in subject matter. It exhibits a juvenile couple. The female figure is wearing single string necklace, ear studs, bangles, and anklets. The male figure is also dressed in similar manner.

There are also some minor findings which include figurines, objects that re used in day to day life, beads of different shapes, dices, looking glass and so on. Apart from that some fragments of glass beads have also been discovered. A ram cart may be mentioned among the terracotta objects.

Excavators have also salvaged some stones of the semi precious variety. We may also mention about some human heads made of stucco.  

Archaeological Deductions: A large number of movable antiquities have been found which belong to different periods. But a large area still lies unexcavated. Also there is a sheer dearth of references regarding the name Pundranagar late in epigraphically record other than the Mahasthangarh Brahmi inscription. Even the name is not found in any textual or literary record anterior to the 11^th century A.D.

Pundranagara was surrounded by its suburbs, on the south southeast by Baghopara, on the west by Vamanpara, on the north by Sekendrabad and on the south by Gokul. Since the establishment of the Gupta Empire this area started growing and the seat of provincial headquarters was situated somewhere in the Palasbari-Mathura- Vamanpara area of the modern age. During the Gupta period the name Pundranagara went out of use and the name Pasasvrindaka took its place. It became the administrative headquarters of PundravardhanBhukti or the administrative division called Pundravardhan. Skahanagara and Gopagriha were two other suburbs. Mahasthangarh and its suburbs were urban in nature and they continued to exist from 4^thcentury B.C to the 13^th century A.D. After that the inhabitants used different parts in different times.

The name Paundranagar rmeans the city of Paundras. But the origin of this name is still uncertain. But scholars have put forward three theories: (A) The word Pundra is derived from the name of a disease which causes a paleness in complexion and enlarged belly. Pundranagar was the place where most people were suffering from that ailment.  (B) Punda was the name of a special type of sugarcane. The city where this type of sugarcane is grown profusely is called Pundranagar. (C) According to Aiteraya Aranyaka and Satapatha Brahmana of the 8^th -7^th centuries B.C.  and 6^th B.C. respectively the Pundras were a group of people who were non Aryan in origin and who lived in the eastern side of the river Sadanira.

We also find information about the history of history of Pundranagar in Ashokavadana which is a product of the 1^st century A.D. It mentions the land as Pundravardhana. A large number of nirgranthas or naked Jain ascetics lived in this place. They drew a picture of the Buddha in which he was shown a grovelling at the feet of Mahavira. They were mercilessly slaughtered by Asoka. Another Buddhist text Divyabadana describes the biography of Bhadrabahu who established Pundravardhana. He is also believed to have written the Kalpasutra, a sacred text of the Jainas. Some scholars opine that Bhadravahu was a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya , Asoka’s grandfather and the founder of the Maurya dynasty. We receive corroboration of this fact from some other epigraphical records. 

In ancient Indian history the Mauryans were first dynasty that established a massive empire in India that stretched from Gujarat to Orissa and their capital was at Pataliputra in southern Bihar. Paundranagara-Mahasthan was situated near it. So, it is possible that the Pundras were conquered by Mauryans and a divisional administrator or Mahamatra was stationed there. The Maurya dynasty was followed by the Sungas and the Kanvas respectively. But neither of them was strong enough to control the vast territory owned by the Mauryans. Then the imperial Guptas established the Gupta dynasty in the 4^th century A.D. Perhaps as a result of neglect of the central power Pundranagara lost into oblivion during this period. Since the late 5^th century A.D. the imperial Guptas began to feel the challenges posed by the local principalities. Foreign powers also invaded the north western part of Bangladesh. Among them we may mention the invasion of the Tibetan king Sambatson in 567-579 A.D. Then the famous tripartite struggle ensued and Bengal was divided into two halves, the kingdom of Samatata in the east and Gauda in the west. The dynasties which took part in the tripartite struggle were the Pushyapatis of Thaneswar, the Maukharies of Kosala and the Gaudas of Magadha.  The capital of the Gaudas was near Pundranagar. The Gaudas had much rivalry with their neighbour, the Varmanas of Kamta- Prayagayotisa of the north. The Varmanas, on the other hand maintained a cordial relationship with the enemies of Gaudas. As a result of this rivalry the northern rampart of the citadel was fortified with stone to repulse the attack of the Varmanas from that side. After the death of the Gauda king an age of anarchy started in the western part of Bengal which lasted till the year 755 A.D. when people chose a leader among them named Gopal and he ascended to the throne. In this way the Pala dynasty came into existence but the Palas established their kingdom in the west leaving Pundranagar. But we have archaeological relics of the Pala period from Mahasthangar and it shows that the citadel was still in use at that point of time. The first Muslim conqueror Bakhtiar Khilzi established his seat of administration in Basankot which was not far from Pundranagara. Therefore, in all probability someone from the Muslim camp established his own resort at Pundranagar as it was a suitable place for military or missionary purposes. The inscriptional slab written in Arabic and discovered by Mr Nagendranath Bose bears testimony to this.

Bibliography:

1.      Ahmed, S., Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. 4, Rajshahi, 1960.

2.      Beveridge, J., The Antiquities of Bogura, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 47, Vol. I, 1878.

3.      Cunninggham, A., Report on a Tour in Bihar and Bengal in 1879-80 from Patna to Sonagaon, ASI.

4.      Farook, A. A., Excavation at Mahasthangarh, BL, Vol. 2. No. 1, 1993, Dhaka.

5.      Gangopadhyay, K.K., Banglar Bhaskarya, Kolkata, 1910.

6.      Huntington, L. S., Some Aspects of Bengal Stone Scultures, BL, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1975.

7.      Latif, S. A., An Outline of the Cultural History of India, Kolkata.

8.      Majumdar, R. C., (ed.) Ramacharitam, Varendra Research Society, Rajshahi, 1939.

9.      Martin, M., Eastern India: The History Antiquities Topography and Statistics Studies in History, No. 15, Lomdon, 1838.

10.  Puri, B. N., History of the Pratiharas, Oxford, 1950.

11.  Rahman, S. S. M., Archaeological Investigation in Bagra District, ICSBA, Series: 3, Dhaka, 2000.

12.  Sales, F. J., Excavation in Mahasthangarh: New Evidence of Contacts with the Ganges Vally, JICSBA, No.4, Dhaka, 1999.

13.  Sen, B.S.C., Bogurar Itihas, Rangpur Sahitya Parisad, 1912.

14.  Smith, M. L., Bhasu Vihara Excavation, Field Report: March 2003, Los Angles.