Buddhism in Cambodia: A Birds eye view

Sumanapal Bhikkhu (Dr. Subhasis Barua)

Introduction: Cambodia is a country, located in South-East Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam and Laos¹. Buddha's remarkable teachings, emphasizing on practical aspect of life spread in Ceylon; Burma, Thailand, Nepal, Tibet, Korea, China, Japan and even Cambodia². The archaeological finds prove that the Cambodians received Buddhism not only as their religion but practically the whole of their civilization and Culture. At first, Buddhism had not stable position in that land, but gradually it made its ground in the largest part of the country and became the dominant religion in Cambodia (Kamboja) ³. There is however, no definite information as to when Buddhism attained this position.

This paper attempts to analyze the condition of Buddhism in Cambodia. Ascender:

History:  The people in various parts of Southeast Asia came to know of Buddhism as a result of increased contact with the Indian merchants who had come to the region to trade. These merchants not only established trading stations in Southeast Asia, but also brought their religions and cultures with them. Under their influence the local people began to practice a mixture of Buddhism and Hinduism, while retaining at the same time many of their old beliefs and customs⁴. By the end of the 4th century, Indian influence had spread throughout the kingdom of Cambodians. Even in the fifth century some Buddhist monks were said to have been invited to China to translate Buddhist texts from Indian languages to Chinese. It was not until the ninth century that Buddhism began to receive some royal patronage from the rulers. The great emperor 'Suryavarman I' and 'Jayavarman VII' were great patrons of Buddhism.

The history of Buddhism in Cambodia spans nearly thousand years, across a number of successive kingdoms and empires. Buddhism, along with Hindu influences, entered the Funan kingdom with Hindu merchants. Later a second stream of Buddha's entered Khmer culture during the Angkor Empire when Cambodia absorbed the various Buddhist traditions of the 'Mon Kingdoms' of 'Dvaravati' and 'Haripunchai'. A variety of Buddhist traditions co-existed peacefully throughout Cambodian lands, under the tolerant auspices of Hindu Kings and the neighboring 'Mon-Theravada' kingdoms Cambodian Buddhism was instrumental in fomenting Khmer national identity and the independence movement in 20th century leading to Cambodian independence as a sovereign state.

In fact, Buddhism, after its arrival/ spread in Cambodia became a dominant and popular religion rather a way of life of the people of Cambodia, under the patronage of the rulers of Cambodia, such as.........

Patrons of the saddharma:

• Kaundinya jayavarman' (A. D. 478-514) and 'Rudravarman' (A. D. 514-539) Buddhism flourished at 'Funan' under the royal patronage in the fifth and sixth centuries A. D. Of the kings of the Funan dynasty, like 'Kaundinya Jayavarman' (A. D. 478-514) and 'Rudravarman' (A. D. 514-539), were important from the religious and cultural points of view⁵. In A. D. 484 'Kaundinya Jayavarman' sent a mission under the leadership of a monk Nagasena by name to the Chinese ruler⁶. The 'Liang Annals' tell us that 'Kaundinya Jayavarman' in A. D. 503 sent a mission with the 'coral image of Buddha' to the Chinese emperor ' Wu-ti' who was   a great patron of Buddhism.   During his reign two   monks   of Funan, 'Sanghapala' and 'Mandrasena came to the Chinese court in the early years of the sixth century A.D. to translate the 'Buddhist texts⁷. Both of them worked hard for several years in China for translating the Buddhist documents. This shows that the Buddhist monasteries existed in Funan in Cambodia where Buddhist texts were studied. In A.D. 514 'Rudrasena' succeeded 'Jayavarman'⁸. In A. D. 519 'Rudravarman' sent a sandal-wood image of Buddha' to the emperor ' Wu-ti: In A. D. 539 a 'long hair relic of Buddha' was also sent to him⁹. At' Ta-prohm' in the province of 'Batgi' in southern Cambodia a Sanskrit inscription which refers to 'Jayavarman' and 'Rudravarman' has been unearthed.

 • King Javavarman I (A. D. 665): We find in the 'Vatprei' inscription ¹⁰ of King 'Jayavarman I' dated in the Saka year 587 (A. D. 665), a reference of a charitable trust by two Buddhist monks named ' Ratnabhanu' and 'Ratnasimha'. 'Ratnabhanu' and 'Ratnasimha'' were receptacles of Virtue, knowledge, mildness, patience, compassion self control and prudence¹¹.

• Yasovarman (A.D. 889-908): The 'Tep Pranam' stele inscription¹² throws further light on the state of Buddhism in Kambuja during the reign of 'Yasovarman. ' 'Yasovarman' (A.D. 889-908) was a great king in every sense of the term. He was liberal in his religious views. Although he was a devoted follower of Brahmanism, he patronized Buddhism in an untainted manner. He took as much interest in Buddhism as in Brahmanical religion. One of the verses of the inscription states—"King Yasovarman", king of kings the lord of Kambu, has built this 'Saugatasrama' for the well being of the Buddhists." ¹³

• Rajendravarman (A.D. 961): The flourishing condition of Buddhism in Cambodia during the reign of 'Rajendravarman' is also attested by few inscriptions¹⁴ of this period. The 'Bat cum inscription' which belongs also to the reign of 'Rajendravarman,' contains some interesting data regarding 'Mahayana Buddhism' which played an important role in the religion of Kambuja. 'Rajendravarman' was succeeded by his son 'JayavarmanV.'

• Jayavarman V (A. D. 986-1001): During the reign of Jayavarman V (A.D. 968-1001) 'Mahayana Buddhism' was in flourishing state in Cambodia. From an Inscription of 'Srey Santhor' of 'Wat Sithor¹⁵ in southern Cambodia discovered on the east side of 'Mekong' we learn that Kirtipandita who was a Buddhist minister of 'Jayavarman V played an important role in the development of Buddhism in Cambodia in the second half of the tenth century A.D. This inscription contains interlaid instructions of the king in support of Buddhist practices. It also refers to the importation of Mahayana books by Kirtipandita from foreign land.

Suryavarman I (A. D. 1002-1049): Seems to have been the first Buddhist ruler of Kamboja, as it is indicated by his posthumous title Nibbanapada. One of his inscriptions¹⁶ begins with an invocation to Siva along with Buddha. The 'Sthaviravada' (Theravada) school of Buddhism also receives equal favor and patronage of king 'Suryavarman' like the sister school although it reached Cambodia much later than 'Mahayana'. Unfortunately there is only one record of the time to attest this fact. The inscription of 'Lopburi' (in Siam), engraved on a stale, now remaining in the modern temple of 'Bang Pahin ', gives us the royal edict issued by the king for the regulation of the monasteries.

Jayavarman VII (A.D. 1181-1218): 'Jayavarman VII' the 'Grand, Monarch¹⁷ of Kamboja, may be compared to the great Mauryan 'Ashoka' in respect of their creed, performance of benevolent activities and possession of noble qualities. He is one of the most remarkable personalities in the history of Cambodia and in the estimation of great historians, he is considered as the greatest sovereign of Kambujadesa. 'Jayavarman VII' was a devout Buddhist who received this faith

from his father 'Dhamnindravarman II', ¹⁸ etc. but he was probably also influenced in this respect by his two queens-'Jayarajadevi' and 'Indradevi' the two talented sisters, who were both ardent Buddhists. During the reign of 'Jayavarma' Mahayana Buddhism with devotion to 'Avalokitesvara or Lokesvara' become the leading deity of the period and many images of this deity appeared in different parts of the empire. The four stone faces on each tower of the ''Bayon'’ ¹⁹ are supposed as colossal stone portraits of the great emperor '. Jayavarman VII' in the guise of the 'Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara' facing in all directions. 'Jayavarman VII' died in C.E. 1218 and was given the posthumous name 'Maha-parama-Saugata', the Great and supreme Buddhist. Theravada Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism first manifests itself in an inscription in a private temple at A. D. 1230 in during the reign of ''Indravarman II'. The inscription is partly in Pali and partly in 'Khmer'. The king gave permission to a lady, to build a Vihara at the sport and install a Buddha image. Its name was 'Sri Indra Mahadeva'. But it is not at all a Shiva temple. The temple is intended for Buddha-worship. Evidently Theravada Buddhism had arrived in Cambodia Pali became the official language in Cambodia. The customary worship was done by the monks who shaved the head and wore yellow clothing and left the right shoulder uncovered. Theravada Buddhism was a message of liberation for those who were conditioned to look upon their kings as gods, to rely for individual and collective welfare on the ministrations of Brahmana priests and to accept as God-given the caste-ridden society and the milieu of life it created.

Mahayana Buddhism: We are told of one Buddhist priest's 'Nagasena' who was deputed to the Chinese emperor by king of Funan in the 8th century. He reported that Brahmanism and Buddhism were flourishing there side by side. But that Buddhism was surely Mahayanism (purely Indian brand). Since the Gupta age (A.D. 300-550) of Indian history Buddhist Mahayana faith in Indian had been developing in its speculative philosophies institutional forms and a well marked bent towards Hinduism, then gaining ground in the country. Even the forms of worship were alike. Hence Mahayana Buddhism was easily accommodated within the system of Hindu culture that prevailed in these states of East Asia. Many kings proclaimed the Buddha's trinity-the Buddha, the Dharma, The Sangha subscribed to the ' Trikaya' doctrine, the concept of the Buddha functioning in three kinds of bodies, which is the fundamental doctrine of Mahayanism. They created four faced statue "Brahma', 'Vishnu,' 'Maheswar’ and Buddha. Though Shiva is one and indivisible, divided in his functions which the additional images are made to symbolize²⁰.

Cambodia and other Countries: Cambodia is closely linked with India. The Pala king ' Vigrahapala' belonged to a line of Kamboja family. A short record engraved on a pillar at "Bangarh (Dinajpur north)' refers to the construction of a 'Saiva' temple by a 'Gauda' king of Kamboja family. Though the date of this record is ascertained may be to the middle of the 10th century A.D. It was formerly believed that this Kamboja rule was the result of a successful invasion of North Bengal by the Kambojas, a hill tribe from the north, west, and east. 'Rajyapala' is described as the ornament of the Kamboja family, an ambitious and powerful Kamboja chief. But the theory of a Kamboja invasion is not supported by any positive evidence and appears to be highly improbable-^¹. In Cambodia, there is an ancient Vihara known as 'Buddhaghosa Vihara' and a living tradition in that country. There is no reason to doubt this belief.

The Funan kingdom flourished between B.C. 100 and A.D.500 as a Hindu country. Then it began to assert its presence. The Buddhist 'Sailendra' kingdom exercised suzerainty over Cambodia as vassal state during the end of the eighth and the beginning of the ninth centuries. It had no formal administrative ties with other Buddhist bodies. 'Sailendra' dynasty also built the fantastic temple 'Angkor Wat' and 'Angkor Thorn' in Cambodia, and Nalanda in India.

During the 7th and 8th centuries, Thailand's interference in Cambodia's politics helped the former to influence the religious world of the latter. Though Thailand disturbed Cambodia's politics and hampered its progress but the Thai king and their Buddhist world made a distribution to the progress of Buddhism in Cambodia²². There Buddhism attained this position undoubtedly due to the influence of Thais. When Burma and Siam came under Thai rule, Buddhism both as faith and culture existed in these countries. But in Cambodia, the situation was different. There Hinduism was turned into Buddhism by the Thai kings, priests and men of high rank in society.

Siam had been the old rival of Cambodia. But we find in the 'Mangalatthadipani', published about a decade now by the government of Cambodia, written by 'Sri Mangala' of northern Siam, about the Siamese king 'Mangkuts 'influence on Cambodians Buddhism. The '' Jinakalamali' gives an account of the cultural connection between Cambodia and Srilanka, in the 5th century. It states that 1967 years after the 'Mahaparinibbana' of Lord Buddha eight monks headed by 'Mahananasiddhi' from Cambodia with 25 monks from 'Nabbispura' in Thailand came to Srilanka to receive the Upasampada ordination at the hands of the Sinhalese Mahatheras. Buddhism continued to flourish in Cambodia in the 16th century A. D. King 'Aug Chan' (A.D. 1516-1566) a relative of king 'Dhammaraja', was a devout Buddhist. He built pagodas in his capitals and many Buddhist shrines in different parts of Cambodia. Cambodia's Buddhist world owes a great debt to Ceylon. Pali canon has been preserved in its entirety in this island and Ceylonese Buddhism had great influence upon Burma, Cambodia, Siam and Laos, where Theravada Buddhism flourishes today.

It's Impact on the Cambodian Society: Some architectural Monuments in Cambodia:

Architectural monuments of which the most imposing are 'Banteay kdei', 'Ta prohm', 'Preah Khan', 'Neak Pean', 'Banteay Chhmar\ and the temple of 'Bayon' in the midst of the Capital 'Angkor Thorn'.

Banteay Kdel: The earliest of 'Jayavarman 's' religious monuments is perhaps 'Banteay Kdei', located near the small temple of 'Kutisvara' on the ancient site of 'Kuti'.

Ta prohm: Another monument of 'Jayavarmandadeva' is the 'Rajavihara', the temple of 'Ta Prohm' which was constructed in A.D. 1186 to shelter an image of his mother 'Jayarajachuramani'_ as 'Prajnaparamita' and an image of 'Jayamangalarattha' preceptor of the king.

Preah Khan: Five years after the temple of 'Ta Prohm', the king constructed another pious structure in A.D. 1191 which house the statue of his father, king ''Dharanindravarman II', deified in the form of the 'Bodhisattva Lokeswara' under the name 'Jayavarmesvara'. This temple bears now the name 'Freah Khan '²³ and is one of the most spacious of the 'Angkor group'; its plan is also one of the most complexes.

Neak Pean: This is another attractive small temple. This little temple of 'Rajasri’ now known as 'Neak Pean'. The temple, which was dedicated to the 'Bodhisattva Lokesvar 'a in his function as healer of the sick and the lame, is one of the most unique and beautiful specimens of all Khmer architecture.

Bay on: The Bay on which is situated in the centre of the Capital city of''Angkor Thorn''. It was formerly attributed to 'Yasovarman P (A.D. 889-908); but the recent research of Coeds has proved beyond doubt that it was the work of 'Jayavarman VIT who ascended the throne in the year A.D. 1181.

Religious Condition of Combodia: During the reign of 'Srindravarmari' a Chinese embassy came to 'Angkor Thorn' in A.D. 1296. 'Chou-Ta-Kuan' who accompanied the Chinese Ambassador wrote his famous account on the manners and customs of Kamboja²⁴. His account contains some interesting data regarding the religious condition of the time. He says that there were three religions, which he calls 'Pan-chi', 'Chu-ku', and 'Pa-sseu-wei'. Regarding these three religions, his account informs us thus-"the learned are called 'Pan-chi' (Pandit). The monks are called 'Chou-kopu' (which is still the name for 'Siamese Hinayana' monks), and the 'Taoists' are called 'Pa-sseu-wei' (pasupats).

The distinctive mark of the 'Pan-chi' is a 'white thread' round their necks-which is never discarded (the up vita). The 'Pan chi, who enters into service, reaches the highest offices. The 'Ch'ou-kou' shaves their heads, wear 'yellow garments and keep the right shoulders uncovered and go barefoot. They eat fish and meat but do not drink wine. They also offer fish and meat to Buddha. The texts, which they recite, are very numerous and are written on palm leaves. Some of these monks have palanquins with a golden pole and a gold-handled umbrella and the king consults them about serious affairs.

Modern and Traditional Activities: We find that the divisions within the Sangha between ‘Modernists’ and Traditionalists’ were recorded in Cambodia as early as 1918. Broadly speaking 'Modernists' have attempted to respond to western criticism of Buddhist institutions by re-interpreting Buddhist teaching particularly those related to philosophy and meditation in light of both modern secular knowledge and textual source of Theravada' teaching of the 'Pali canon' 'Traditionalists on the other hand, look performance of merit making ceremonies and the attainment of 'heightened states' through concentration forward to the meditation. Traditionalists have tended to reject modern interest in 'Vipassana' meditation as a foreign affectation and have focused on the memorizing and recitation of Pali passages rather than attempts to study, translate and interpret the contents of the Pali 'Tipitaka'. For many years 'Maha Ghosananda' (1929-2007) has been the most visible and recognizable figure of the 'Maha Nikaya' Modernists through his ''Dharmayatra' programm and other social change in Cambodian society. 'Maha Ghosananda' brought to Cambodia a form of engaged Buddhism that has proved very popular with western Buddhism and 'NGO'S' who have lent their support and funding to efforts by 'Maha Ghosananda' and other modernist leaders. High officials of the Cambodian government by contrast, have tended to support the most conservation of the 'Maha Nikaya Monks', particularly by the members of a segment known as the role recites of various Pali Khmer prayers and verses discourses. Reciting this verses lay supporters can accrue great merit that will result in impenetrate worldly benefits such as financial or career success. A large number of senior Cambodian officials (including 'Hunsen') have patronized 'Bayon' temples, providing for extensive expansions and rich decoration of the most popular temples 'Bayan' monks also teach the efficacy 'group repentance' rituals, where through the recitation of Pali text the karmic fruit of carrier misdeeds can be avoided or moderated. These ritual which developed, from new year’s repentance Ceremonies, have became very popular among certain segments of Cambodian society, and have been conducted by the current 'Maha nikaya Sangharaja’ ,  'Tepvong'.

The 'Dhamnayuttika' order in Cambodia seems to occupy a middle position between 'Maha Nikaya' Modernists and traditionalists. Like the ''Dhamnayuttika' order in Thailand they place a higher premium on scriptural study and knowledge of the Pali language than they monks of the traditionalist Cambodia. At the same time they have not embraced the modernist engaged notion of monk's assessment of social development preferring government misdeeds. The 'Maha Nikaya' heir condemned this format political activism calling for the arrest of some monks and defrocking others.

Role of Young Monks: The 'Young Monks' are primarily junior members of the clergy, drawn from temple in and around 'Phnom Penh'. Unlike the engaged modernists their interest is not in using the authority of the Sangha to aid social development programs, but rather to express direct opposition to government policies and corruption. Since in the 1993 un-monitored electrons, monks have been permitted to role in Cambodia (a move opposed by some senior monks) while this has not resulted in any large-scale mobilization of the Sangha as political force. It has drawn some young monks farther into participation in parliamentary politics.

Present Cambodia: After the fall of the "Pol Pot" regime (Democratic Kampuchea), Cambodia was under 'Vietnamese' occupation and in a civil war during the 1980. 'Vietnam' ruled through former 'Khmer Rouge' heading the 'Kampuchean people Revolutionary Party', fighting the 'coalition Government of Democratic 'Kampuchea', composed of their Maoist ex-comrades, the republican conservative 'KPNLF' and the royalists of' Funcinpec'. Peace efforts intensified in 1989 and 1991 with two international conferences in 'Paris' and a peacekeeping' mission held maintain a cease-fire. As a part of the peace effort UN-sponsored elections were held in 1993 held restore some resemblance of normality as did the rapid diminishment of the 'Khmer Rouge' in the mid 1990 'S. C. nor Odom Suhanouk' was reinstated as king of coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998. Compared to its recent past, the 1993-2003 has been one of relative stability for Cambodia. However, political violence continues to be a problem.

Present Condition: Hundreds of thousands of people lost their lives during the 1970-1975 civil wars, when American saturation bombing targeting Vietnamese communist sanctuaries and communist atrocities took their toll of Buddhist monks, lay people and temples. The same fate was meted out to Muslim mosques. By the end of the decade, the physical destruction of Buddhism in Cambodia was nearly complete. The Buddhist Sangha and network of temples have been in the forefront of regenerative forces in the past, in spite of materialistic globalization development pressures, it can, with help and encouragements from sympathetic friends again play a leading role in shaping a better future for all Cambodians²⁵, However, we optimistically believe that Buddhism in Cambodia would gradually grow up to its glorious state again. As now a day we have the Buddhist institute for researching Buddhist scriptures in Cambodia. Cambodian Government opened a Pali High School in 1914; now it has developed into college and this year a Buddhist University has also started. Phnom-Penh a Royal library was opened in 1925; there many religious books in Cambodian language have been published. The cornerstones of Cambodian Buddhism are the Buddhist bonze and the Wat. Traditionally each village has a spiritual centre-a Wat where of from five to more than 70 bonzes reside. Becoming a bonze and leaving the Sangha are matters of individual choice although, in theory, nearly all Cambodian males over 16 serve terms as bonzes. Most young men don't intend to become fully ordained bonzes (bhikkhu) and they remain as monks for less than a year. The ordinations of becoming bonze, is held from mid-April to mid-July, during the rainy season (Barsabas). Traditionally, they become monks early in life. A bhikkhu must be at least 20. The monk's life is regulated by Buddhist law and routine. He should follow 227 rules of monastic discipline and 10 basic precepts. Women are not ordained, but older women, especially widows, can become nuns. They live in Wat and play an important role in the every day life of the temple. Nuns shave their head and generally follow the same precepts as monks.²⁶

End Notes;

1. www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/Buddhist world southeast.

2. Bapat, P.V. 2500 years of Buddhism, Publication Division Govt. of India, New  

    Delhi 1997.   p.58.

3. Ibid.

4. www.buddhanet.net/e-blearning/Buddhist world/southeast.

5. Banerjee. A.C. Buddhism in India and Abroad. The World Press Pvt. Ltd.  

    Calcutta, 1973. p.206.

6. Hall. D.G.E. A History of South East Asia. Macmillan Press Ltd.,London,

   1994,p.32

7. Eliot. C. Hinduism and Buddhism Vol. III. 1954, p. 105.

8. Briggs, L. P. The ancient Khmer Empire, 1951, p. 30.

9. Pelliot. P. "Le Founan" BEFEO-iii, Hanoi, 1903, p.284-303.

10. Majumder. R. C. Kambuja Desa, 1944, p. 29.

11. Sengupta. S. Buddhism in South East Asia, Atish memorial publication society,

      Kolkata, 1994, p. 102

12. Majumder, R. C. Kambuja Desa, 1944, p. 37.

13. Sengupta. S. op-cit, p. 102.

14. Chatterjee, B. R., Indian Cultural influences in Cambodia, 1964, p. 140.

15. Codes. G. C. The Making of South East Asia, London, 1966. p. 195.

16. Majumder, R. C., op-cit. p. 149.

17. Sengupta, S. op.cit. p.106.

18. Chatterjee, B. R., op-cit. p. 201.

19. Sengupta, S., op.cit. p.109.

20. Sing, N, International Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol-VIII, 1999, p. 2.

21. Majumder, R. C. History of ancient Bengal, pp. 126-127.

22. www.combodian view-com/Cambodian Buddhism-history.

23. Sengupta, S. op-cit. p. 111.

24. Chatterjee. B. R. op-cit. p. 207.

25.www.buddhismtoday.com/English/world/country/016-buddhism%in20%

    cambodia.

26. Wikipedia. org/wiki/Buddhism.in-cambodia last modified 5.8.008.

Hadaya Sutta in Prajnaparamita Text

Sumanapal Bhikkhu

The Prajnaparamita Hrdaya Sutra is the earliest Mahayana Sutra. This Sutra is of great important from the point of view of the history of religion. This Sutra treats the "Six perfection" (Paramitas) of a Bodhisatta, especially of Prajnaparamita the highest perfection, called 'Wisdom'.¹

The title of the Prajnaparamita Hrdaya Sutra (or Heart Sutra) combines Dharma, i.e., Prajna paramita with a specific example Heart or Hadaya. (Skt. Prajnaparamita Hrdaya, Pali, Pannaparamita Hadaya). The terms use is in Sanskrit Prajna means wisdom, and Prajnaparamita stands for wisdom acquired experientially, by means of intuitive insight and perfect cultivation to the level of transcendental knowledge. It is the original wisdom of the mind, or the true mind.² Prajnaparamita seventeen types in total and the Prajnaparamita Hrdaya Sutra is one of them.

The Heart Sutra is the axis of all the Prajnaparamita teachings. Taking further the example of the mind, and might call the Heart Sutra as the centre of the central Sutras. If we compare the core of this sutra with the worldling mind, the mind of Prajna is the true mind and the mind of wordlings is the deluded mind.³ The mind of Prajnaparamita sutra is the true mind, also referred to as the Essential wisdom. Essential wisdom we are speaking of is to be distinguished from an awareness of object or environment and their used and value usually characterized as 'knowledge' by worldlings.

The term Paramita is in Sanskrit means reaching the other shore. "Prajnaparamita or the wonderful wisdom, coursing like a boat, transports all sentient beings across the sea of defilement to the other shore that is Nirvana. The word Nirvana, also from Sanskrit, means transcending birth and death, or simply liberation."⁴ Prajna paramita is therefore, the Essential wisdom and the centre of all kinds of Prajna.

'Sutra' in Sanskrit originally meant to uphold, and when applied to principles, it uphold the principles of all Buddha’s moving upward, downward upholding sentient beings according to their potentiality. Sutra means a shortcut and a well frequented path. It means the way to complete Enlightenment.

We should have no difficulty to understand the sutra's purpose. We should understand its principle according to the sentence 'there is nothing to be attained.' When there is nothing to attain, one is able to discern the characteristic of Emptiness.⁵

[I have translated on Prajnaparamita Hrdaya (Heart) Sutra from Skt. to Pali. This translation prepared by, I have tried my best. Now I am placing Hrdaya Sutra in Pali.]

Namo Sabbanu, Evam me sutam Ekam samayam bhagava Rajagahe viharati Gijjhakuta pabbate mahatabhikkhu Ssamghena saddhim mahata ca bodhisattasamghena. Tena kho pana samayena bhagava dhammapariyaya namo samadhi samapanno. Tena ca samayena Ariyavalokitessaro bodhisatta mahasatta gambhiraya panna paramitaya cariya caramano evam avalokayati. Gambhirasambodha Pancasakhandhacca svabhava sunnam avalokayati.

Atha kho ayusma Sariputto Buddhanubhavena Ariya Avalokitessaro bodhisatta etad-avoca-yo kvacit kulaputto ca, kuladuhita ca, gambhiraya pannaparamitaya cariya catukamo, katha sikkhitaboo? Eva uttam Ariya Avalokitessaro boddhisatta mahasatta ayusmantam Sariputta etad-avoca-yo kvacit Sariputta. Kulaputta ca Kuladuhita ca gambhiraya pannaparamitaya cariya catukamo, tena eva avalokitabbam pancasakhandhacca svabhava sunnana samanupassati, rupasunnata sunnateva rupam, rupanna puthaga sunnaata, sunnataya na puthaga rupam. (Ya rupam ma sunnata ya sunnata tvam rupam). Evam vedana, sanna- sankkharavinnanani ca sunnam. Evam Sariputta sabbadhamma sunnata lakkhana anupanna aniruddha amala  abimala anuna asampunna. Tasma tehi Sariputta sunnataya na rupam, na vedana, na sanna, na sankhara, na vinnanam. Na cakkho, na sotam, na ghanam, na jivha, na kaya, na-mano, na rupa, na saddo, na ganddho, na raso, na phasso, na dhamma. Na cakkhudhatu vanno, manodhatu, na mano vinn anadhatu (na dhammadhatu). Na avijja, na vijja, na khayo, ya vanno jaramarana, na

jaramaranakhayo. Tatha eva na dukkha Samudaya, nirodha maggo, na nana, na labha-alabha. Tasma Sariputta alabhena bodhisattanam pannaparamitaassitva viharati (Cittavarana). Cittavaranassitva atha Vipariyasa nitthanibbana. Ti addhatthta sabba Buddha pi pannaparamitaassitva, anuttara samma sambodhi-abhisambodhi. Tasma (natabbo) pannaparamita mahamanta, mahavijja manto, anuttara manta, asamasamamanta sabba dukkha pasamanamanta, sacca abhinnatva pannaparamitaya utta manta. Seyathidham 'gate gate paregate parasamgate bodhisvaha.' Evam Sariputta gambhiraya pannaparamitaya cariyaya sikkhitabbo bodhisatta mahasattena.

Atha ko bhagava tasma samadhitthaya Ariya Avalokitessarassa bodhisatta maha sttassa Sadhukara adhata-Sadhu kulaputta, evam etad kulaputta, evam etad gambhiraya pan aparamitaya cariya cataba yatha taya niddittham anumodhate Tathagate.

Idha avoca bhagava. (Anandamana) Ayusma Sariputto Ariya Avalokitessarassa bodhisatta mahasatto, sa ca sabba avattana parisada deva, manussa, asura, ganddhabba ca loka bhagavato bhasita abhinandati.

Iti Pannaparamita Hadaya suttam nitthitam.

Notes :

1.           Prajnaparamita means both the perfection of wisdom, and the writings treating of it, though in the Mahayana as in the Hinayana, there are sometimes ten. paramitas enumerated, yet more frequently there are only six, viz; Charity, moral conduct, patience, energy, meditation and wisdom. Winternitz, M., A. History of Indian literature, vol-II, Motilal Baranasidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 1993, p. 301.

2.           To, Master Lok, The Prajnaparamita or Heart Sutra, Sutra translation committee of the U.S.A. New York. 1995, p.3.

     3.     Ibid, p. 4.

     4.     Ibid.

     5.     Ibid, p. 5.

Bliss of Emancipation through Buddhist Education

Sumanapal Bhikkhu

Pre-Buddhist Brahmanic education in ancient India was more a product of the then religious establishment than socio-economic and political condition of the Aryan culture. In India knowledge only was a means of obtaining salvation or Moksha. Dr. R. K. Mookherjee says, learning in India through the ages had been prized and pursued not for its own sake, if we may so put it, but for the sake and as a part of religion. It was sought as the means of salvation or self realization as the means of highest attainment of life, viz., ‘Mukti’ or ‘Emancipation’.1

Education is basically self-culture and self-improvement. It is the process that will go on to the end of one’s life. In other words education is the process of development of the latent qualities of an individual. The object of education is development of faculties of human beings along desired and required direction.

The word education has a wide meaning and includes all forms of mental development. The dictionary defines education as giving intellectual, moral and social instruction especially as a formal and prolonged process. Education as one of the function or activities of state is a concept of purely modern growth.2

The history of Buddhist education really forms one aspect of the history of Buddhist civilization itself. It reflects in its process the inner intellectual life of the monasteries. The gradual and progressive enrichment of this life, it’s unfolding as a system of training for a work, found its expression in the education imparted in monasteries. Infact Buddhist education always caters to the new intellectual needs and interests of every age. The monastery was not just a place for doing meditation but a venue of culture and learning.3 This is where Buddhist education, registered a step forward from ancient Aryan education and Buddhist education had a broadening and liberalship effect over the course of centuries.

Education means in Buddhism bringing knowledge and skills to a person, enabling him to translate such knowledge and skills to appropriate situations in life and finally, developing discipline and insight and wisdom. The Buddha had given various examples as a to how this education could be accomplished.4

Education in Pali tradition derived from the term “sikkha” generally implies the education process of learning training, instruction, acquisition, development, and enlightenment.5 The term naturally includes “the training of advancement in morality, spiritual concentration and knowledge or wisdom,6 and is always combined with the word “Pada is Sikkhpada i.e., educational code which in normally known as “Sikhapatipada”, i.e. a learner’s course.”7

Sikkha, Sekkho, Sikkhita, viz., Vijja etc. are some of the terms related to learning or learner’s process. Which aims at providing knowledge, information or education to a person and makes him or her knowledgeable and wiser in thought, refined in taste and responsible as well as decent in behaviour with others in the society? In the Indian context Vidy (Pali-Vijja) has been defined as a means which liberates obviously from the darkness of ignorance, refines the character and ultimately liberates the being, “Sa Vidya ya Vimuktaye”. As per Buddhism particularly vijja’ dispels the darkness of ignorance generates the light of knowledge and enables a person to visualize various things in their true perspective.8

Buddha’s methodology was one of graduated exercise. Gradual progress first bringing from the lowest step was the basis of such a process. When we take pupils, we first make them understand the unity; two the duality, three, the trinity and thus we make them count up to hundred.9 This method is illustrated by the examples of the ocean.10

Such a continual process of educational concern has for its functional character gradual training or instruction, gradual practice or performance and gradual progress (anupubbasikkha, Anupubbakiriya, Anupubbapatipada).11 “It gives a learner a correct noble lead in the various spheres of life and an insight into affairs, teaches him how to act rightly and how to live successfully and happily and leads him to all round progress prosperity and welfare to the development of a good personality with perfect knowledge and behavior, and finally to the end of suffering salvation.”12

Buddha’s doctrine or Buddhavacana is Tripitaka which is divided into three pitakas or baskets Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidharma. The Sutta Pitaka or the “Basket of Discourses” is the main source for the Doctrine of the Buddha expounded in argument and dialogues. The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five nikayas. (1) Digha nikaya, (2) Majjhima nikaya, (3) Samyutta nikaya, (4) Anguttara nikaya, (5) Khuddaka nikaya.

The Majjhima nikaya is the second book of the Sutta Pitaka. According to T.W. Rhys Davids and William Steed the term Nikaya means collection, assembly, class, group, and the collection of Buddhist Suttas. R.C. Childers says that the term nikaya is a multitude, assembly, a collection, a class, order, group, an association, fraternity, congregation, a house dwelling etc.

It is known as the middle collection or the collection of discourses of medium length. It is divided into three books each consisting of fifty suttas (Pannas). But the text in the PTS edition contains 152 suttas, the third book containing two suttas in excess of fifty.

Now, we are to discuss the Buddhist education on the basis of Ganaka Moggallana the second volume of the Majjhima Nikaya. We have an important discussion between the Buddha and Brahmin mathematician Moggallana here.

At the very inception, Buddhist education was purely monastic and was intended only for those who are become the formal member of the community or Assembly. The Bhagava points out in course of his discussion that all kinds of training needed a graduated course or progress, which likens a staircase of a building. “A gradual training”. a gradual doing, a gradual practice in study is mathematical calculations.”16 Livelihood is calculation, asked him whether there was any graduated course in the training of Buddha’s disciples.17

There are general standers which can be profitable followed by the monastic inhabitants who are still ‘Sekhas’ and such a pattern of training introduced by the Buddha implies a learners course which characterizes the gradual course of education. “It is possible, Brahmin to lay down a gradual training operation and practice in the Doctrine and Discipline”, the Buddha declared to Ganaka Moggallana, of the gradual course of training for those monks who are learners, who have not yet attained perfection, although they long for the incomparable security from the bonds”. The gradual course of training is a follows.18

When an able man becomes a monk, he is first asked to observe the moral precepts, to abide by all the disciplinary rules codified in the Patimokkhas and to be so careful not as to commit the slightest wrong, “evam eva kho Brahmana Tathagata puriso dhammalabhitva Pathama eva vineti.” A student monk is exhorted to develop his moral habit to live under the control of the obligation, endowed with everything that pertains to right behavior and seeing peril in the slightest faults in thought, word and deed.19 Moral precepts are the basis of spiritual training and development.

When the monks becomes veteran after observance of moral precepts, Buddha further advised to exercise to guard and control over his sense organs,20 to prevent the rise of mental impurities such as greed, despair or consciousness and dejection etc.21 

Buddha asks them to be moderate in eating, to take food with careful reflection, not for fun indulgence or personal charm and beauty, but just for maintaining his body and keeping it fit for leading a pure and holy life that is, he should live a simple life.

Then Buddha advised and to cleanse his mind obstructive mental states (Avaraniya), and Satisampajjhanena samannagata) one is thought to be fully awake at what happens in the body and in feeling movements of his life at all times and in all places (i.e. to practice Satipatthana)

Buddha finally instructed meditation to get rid of mental restlessness; the monk should develop peace of mind through getting rid of the fifth hindrance which is doubt (Vicikiccha). This hindrance may be overcome by confidence in the good (akathakathas kusalesu dhammesu, vicikicchaya cittam parisodhati) 24. When the monks mind is free from hindrance and he becomes clean (sacca), serene (vipassana) and taintless (anavil), when a monk sees himself free of the five mental hindrances he becomes morally sound and strong then he can proceed for spiritual training and development. Then monks start practicing the four gradual stages of concentration (Jhana).

In the fourth stage the meditators mind remain undisturbed by any kind of feeling happy or unhappy, and he has got rid of all mental impurities, the mind attains perfect equanimity (Sa’eva samvatta hoti sampajjhanaya) clear consciousness, and perfect profound knowledge.

After perfecting himself in the meditation, he should try to comprehend the four truths viz., suffering and its origin, its removal and the path leading to its removal. Like wise he should apply his mind towards the impurities (asavas), their origin, removal and the path leading to their removal and he should exert to become an arhat, the perfect.25 This is the gradual course of education for developing morality and spirituality as prescribed by Buddha to his disciples.

Notes & References

1.  Mookerjee, Radha Koomud, Ancient India          Education, p. xxi (prologue)

2.  Bapat, P.V., 2500 Years of Buddhism, Publication Division Govt. of India,  

     New Delhi, 2009, p. 148.

3.  Ibid, p.  149.

4.  Ratnapal Nandasena, Buddhist Sociology, Sri Satguru Publication, New   

      Delhi, 1993, p.117.

5.  Vinaya Pitaka (ed) H. Oldenberg, London P.T.S. Vol-III, 1964, p. 23.

6.  Anguttara Nikaya, (ed) R. Morris, London          P.T.S. vol-I, 1964, p. 23.

7.  R. Morris, Ibid, p. 231.                                          

8.  “Panna, maharaja, uppajjamana, avijjandha karam vidhaneti, Vijjobhasam janeti, nana lokaman, vidaseti, ariyasaccam pakatatani karito, hato yogaravaro aniccanti, va dusshanti  va anattari, va sammapannaya passettiti. Milinda panha pali, VRI, Igatpuri, 1988, p. 37.

9.  Ratnapal, Nandasena, op. cit., Ibid.

10.          “Just as the great ocean become deeper, gradually sleepers, gradually becomes followed out, and there is no abrupt fall. The same was in this doctrine as disciple the training is gradually working through the path, and there is no sudden advance in to full knowledge Vedana (Vars 3) vin-II, p. 237-66.

11.          Digha Nikaya, PTS, Vol-I, (ed.) T.W. Rhys Davids, J. Esllin Carpenter, London, 1949.

12.          R. Morris, Ibid, p. 231.

13.          Pali-English Dictionary, p. 352.

14.          Dictionary of Pali Language, p. 282.

15.          Anupubbasikkha, anupubbakiriya, anupubbapatipad yad-idriyasseva pacchima sopahakalebara (Majjhima nikaya, (ed.) R. Chaklmers, London, P.T.S. Vol-III, 1960, p-1.

16.          Gananam  ganaka Jivanbam    dissati    anupubbasikkha anupubbakiriya,  anupubbapatipada, yadhaisam samkhane, Ibid.

17.          The Middle Length Saying, P.T.S., Vol-III, p. 52.

18.          Majjhima Nikaya (ed.) V. Trenchner, London, P.T.S. Vol-I, p. 354.

19.          Ehi tvam, bhikkhu, silava hohi, patimokkha samvara samvuto vehahi acaragocara sampanno, annumattesu vajjesu bhayadassavi. Majjhimankaya, P.T.S. Vol-EQ, p.2.

20.          ‘Indriyesu guttadvaro’ Majjhima nikaya, P.T.S. Vol-III, p.2.

21.          Slave, R.N., Buddhism and Education, Shruti Publications, Jaipur, 2009. p. 77.

22.          Patisamkha yoniso, aharam a ahrajjasi n’ev na davaya na mandanaya na Vibhusanaya yava-di-eva imassa kayassa thitiya yapanaya vihimsu upanatija bramacariya anuggahaya.

23.          Majjhima nikaya, P.T.S. Vol.-III. p. 3.

24.          Ibid.

25.          N. Dutta and Bajpai, Development of Buddhism in the Uttar Pradesh, pp. 169-70