SumanapalBhikkhu
Gotama
Buddha attained Enlightenment at the age of thirty fifth year. Thereupon he preached his doctrines to the
people for 45 years. So he had a long
span of time for developing and elaborating his teaching. He preached a Dharma which lends to the
extinction of suffering. For the spread
of this Dhamma he formed a Sangha.
From
the very beginning there were two classes of the Buddha's followers, the
Bhikkhus or Mendicants and the Gahapatis or Householders – also called
Uapasakas or lay-devotees. The Sangha
was simply a band or brotherhood of Buddha's more earnest followers. They cultivated the virtue and knowledge of
extinction of desire, leading to the attainment of Nibbana. At first the Sangha consisted exclusively of
men. The Buddha was totally reluctant to
give permission of 'Pabbajja' to women1. The foundation of the order of the Nuns was
not spontaneous as was the foundation of the Bhikkhu Sangha. He was not in favour of allowing women to
lead a homeless life2.
There
is a controversy about the actual foundation of the Buddhist Order of Almswomen
and its beginnings are obscure.
According to Apadana3Yasodhara prayed to Buddha three times for
granting permission for the ordination of women, but was refused by him4. But in the VinayaPitaka5MahapajapatiGotami,
the foster mother of Gotama, is represented as the person who requested for the
formations of the Buddhist Order of Nuns.
Mahapajapati
Gotami, after the demise of Suddhodana, the father of Siddhartha, shaved her
long curls and put on yellow roles. At
that time, the blessed one was staying among the Sakyas in Kapilavatthu in the
Nigrodharama. And Mahapajapati went to
the place where the Blessed One was and requested him to allow women to
renounce their homes and enter the homeless state. But the Buddha refused to give that
permission. This refusal saddened Mahapajapati
and she went away weeping. Buddha then
went to Vesali. Then Mahapajapati and her followers, most of them Sakyan
ladies, cut off their hair and put on saffron – coloured robes as their symbol
of a life of renunciation,followed the Buddha.
In due course they arrived at Vesali.
It is surprising that these royal ladies travelled all the way from
Kapilavatthu to Vesali on foot. The Vinaya
Pitaka6 states that when they reached the destination they were
completely tired. Their faces were sad
and gloomy and tears stood in the eyes for perhaps they were doubtful if the
Buddha would permit them or not. They
stood outside under the entrance parch.
Then Ananda, one of the chief disciples of the Buddha, was shocked to
see them in this doteful plight. He was
overwhelmed with compassion to see the pitiful sight of the royal ladies and
deeply impressed by their zeal and determination. He went to the Buddha and pleaded with him on
behalf of the ladies. After repeated
requests, the Buddha acceded to Ananda's proposal and opened the Order to women
Dharmananda Kosambi doubted about the foundation of the Order of Nuns by the
Buddha7 on condition that Mahapajapati should accept the Eight Chief
Rules or 'Attagarudhamma'. With great
intensity to become nun Gotami accepted all these conditions laid down by the
Buddha. Then Venerable Ananda informed
the Buddha that Mahāpajapati accepted the eight rules and thus she received
Upasampada Ordination8along with her hundred companions. Thus Ananda with Mahapajapati acted as the
founder of Bhikkhuni Sangha.
Mahapajapati was the first lady to fight for woman's right to monastic
life and she was the first lady to receive the ordination. At first the monks used to ordain nuns but
afterwards the monks felt that women became disconcerted and perplexed with the
question necessary for Upasampada. So the
rule was changed and women were ordained in their own Sangha by women only9.
The Eight Chief rules imposed on women before admission in the order were
compulsory and never to be transgressed.
These rules gave subordinate position to women and presupposed the
superiority of monks over nuns. In spite
of such subordinate position women accepted all these conditions because their
yearning for knowledge and desire for emancipation were intensive. They wanted to open the way to liberty by all
means. Their desire for new life was
very profound. Then their attention was
concentrated on fulfilling their determination and when their desire was
fulfilled by accepting these conditions, they did not hesitate for a moment and
accepted it. After Mahapajapati and
several other Sakya ladies received ordination, the order of Bhikkhunis was
well established and multiplied in diverse villages, towns and country
districts. The eight garu-dhammas, laid down by the Buddha were:
(i)
The first rule obliges
the nuns to subordinate themselves to the Bhikkhus. They could never be equal to their brother
monks. If a nun is more experienced,
aged, intelligent, and learned yet she must bow down to a monk even of
superficial knowledge and less experience.
Her position was lower because she was a woman. Even in spiritual field she has no
regard. This rule illustrates the
absolute reluctance of the Buddha towards women. This may be due to the age old tradition of
superiority of male over female in India.
In Buddhism women’s are inferior to men in certain respect. Besides physical weakness women sex cannot
make resolution for Buddhahood. She must
try to become male and then eligible for Buddhahood (Jatakatthavannana,
introduction). Buddha was totally
reluctant to give permission because he was very much anxious to maintain the
purity of the Sangha. It is universally
proved that it is extremely difficult to lead pure and holy life while two
opposite sexes come close together. So
it was necessary to make an artificial barrier between the two sexes and
naturally the position of the new comer was lower.
(ii)
A Nun is not to spend
the rainy season in a district in which there is no Bhikkhu. This is a rule
never to be transgressed. This rule
proves the inferior position of nuns.
They have to depend upon Bhikkhus in all respects. They have no independent status. They even cannot spend rainy season in a
monastery where there is no resident monk.
Buddha imposed the law, may be, due to some socio-religious factors that
prevailed in India in those days.
Perhaps the females were not so much progressive and they were not so safe
to live alone.
(iii)
The third rule
compelled the nuns to see monks twice a month.
Although attendance of Uposatha ceremony is compulsory both for the
monks and nuns, the nuns cannot fix their dates of the Uposatha. The nuns have to ask the monks to fix the
date of Uposatha. But the confession of
offence is the same.
(iv)
The Buddha proclaimed
Pavarana ceremony for promoting the life of harmony among the members of the
Sangha. This law is most shameful and
disgusting for nuns because though the nuns had to confer their guilt and
private affairs in front of the monks, the monks did not confess their guilt in
front of the nuns. So many of the nuns
failed to observe the Pavarana ceremony.
The Pacittiya offence was inflicted upon those who failed to observe the
Pavarana ceremony10 within limited time. The Vinaya Pitaka11 mentions that
later on the Buddha allowed the nuns to hold their Pavarana in their own
Parivena.
(v)
The nature of the infliction of Manatta is
not very clear. Throughout the Vinaya Pitaka
it is seen that with the growth of time and circumstances the disciplinary
rules against the nuns have changed a great deal. Later on, the Buddha allowed the nuns to hold
the Pratimokkha recitation and the confession of faults especially among
themselves.
(vi)
This rule is very
important to put a bar to incompetent women to enter into the Sangha. Although the community of nuns could ordain
the female novice, they could not fully ordain them. The ordinary entrants had to stay at novices
for two years and train themselves in six rules without any break. There is a difference between male and female
novices in the matter of higher ordination.
The male novices have to observe ten percepts12 as against
the six for the female novices. It is apparent throughout that women had fewer
rights and duties than men. But the
rules of admission of Bhikkhunis are stricter in comparison to those of the
Bhikkhus. By imposing these rules and
restrictions the Buddha tried to limit the entry of the unworthy women in the
community of nuns.
(vii)
In this rule the
Bhikkhunis were clearly forbidden to rebuke monks. Though Bhikkhus were never definitely told
that their behaviour towards nuns must be polite but Buddha formulated many
laws restricting the moral conduct of the monks. 'The Dhammapada13 records that the
monks were strictly advised not utter harsh or slanderous words to anybody.
(viii) This
is another rule which definitely recognizes the inferiority of women. She had no right to speak in front of men or
admonish anybody. But the Bhikkhus had
the right to admonish nuns. It is true
that some Theras, but not all, were generally famous for their exceptional
moral conduct vast bearing and spiritual attainments, and the nuns generally
prefer to hear sermons from them. Some
of the nuns were also famous for vast learning and erudition. So this rule is definitely an instance of the
placing of women imposition of inferiority to the men. It also refused to allow them for becoming
independent to manage their own Order and the ratify their own proceedings.
"The group of the
eight disciplinary ordinances is to be regarded as the kernel of the Bhiksuni Vinaya. They are the exclusive original property of
the nuns' Disciplinary Code, in which their position in the Buddhist Order is
determined, as well as their obligations and relations to the monks. The Bhiksuni-Pratimoksa-Vibhanga cannot claim
such originality. It is composed along
the lines of the Bhiksu-Pratimoksa Vibhanga, which is the very prototype of
it." 14However, we have learned that the eight 'Garu-Dhamma'
have their corresponding readings in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tebetan as
well.15This indicates that they belong to a common heritage of the
Buddhist Order which reaches to ancient times even prior to division into
Mahasanghika and Sthavira i.e. before C. 350 B.C., through their sequence is
not in full concordance in the different schools. Eight schools has its own set of
Patimokkha-Rules, the main body is that a set of original rules which every
school shares. More rules are formulated
in addition to the original rules handed down from Buddha's time. Dr. Chatsumarn Kabilsingh has given a
valuable chart where the comparative numbers of rules in each section of the
Bhikkhuni-Patimokkha in each school may be seen as follows:
Th. Dh. Mhs. Msg. Sar. M Sar
Parajika 8 8 8 8 8 8
Samghadisesa 17 17 17 19 17 20
Nissaggiya-Pacittiya 30 30 30 30 30 33
Pacittiya 166 178 210 141 178 180
Patidesaniya 8 8 8 8 8
8
Sekhiya 75 100 100 77 106 90
Adhikarana-samatha 7 7 7 7 7
7
________________________________________________________________________
Total 311 348 380 290 354 346
Two
group of minor rules seem to differ greatly in all schools, namely 'Pacittiya'
and 'Sekhiya' while the first three major groups of rules remain more or less unity.16
There is no Aniyata–Section like Bhikkhu-Patimokkha. Here arrangement of the schools follows
according to chronological order.
Theravada
is successful in retaining the most complete form of Patimokkha and undoubtedly
the oldest one.17As for the date of composition of the Theravada
Patimokkha – codes for Bhikkhunis, we have to keep in mind the suggestion of B.C.
Law. He says that 'it is important to
bear in mind that according to an ancient Buddhist tradition cited by Buddhaghosa,
the Patimokkha codes as they are handed down to us are two among the Vinaya
text which were not rehearsed in the first Buddhist council.18
The acknowledgement of
inferiority of women prior to their admission into the Sangha had for reaching
consequences in the life and history of the Buddhist Sangha. With the great intensity to renounce the
world Mahapajapati accepted all these conditions declared by the Buddha. But later she and other nuns recognized that
these conditions were extremely difficult to maintain in too. So women revolted against it. Gotami
approached the Buddha and requested him to amend the discrimination laws. She
remained relentless and firm considering the gravity of the situation.
The Vinaya Pitaka
having been considered to be the canonical authentic source, in the above cited
admonition of the Buddha, the Bhikkhu Sangha told every authority to perform
the ordination ceremony relating to the Bhikkhuni Sangha. There lies unquestionable validity in the
procedure. The consideration of the
physical nature and other associated habitual conditions of the Bhikkhuni Sangha
might have compelled the Bhikkhu Sangha for drawing up the constitutional rules
and the bye-laws for the introduction of the probationary periods of two days
and the dual ordinations by the Bhikkhuni Sangha and the Bhikkhu Sangha. But non observation of these additions and
interpolations to the basic formula, under no circumstances, can be admitted to
be corrupt and invalid.
The question why was
Buddha unwilling to admit women into the Order' has given rise to controversy
among Buddhist scholars. Buddha knew
that the recluse life would never be in harmony with womanhood. According to
Coomarswamy' we must understand that the early Buddhist want of sympathy with
women is not a unique phenomenon, but rather one that is typical of monastic
sentiment all the world over19.
In this background the view of E. Course is, "women must be a
source of perpetual danger to all celebrates asesties especially in hot
climate"20. So at the
outset it seems that the Buddha was unsympathetic towards women. But Buddha was all enlightened. Through his intuitive knowledge he knew men's
inherent nature. He was all
compassionate. He preached his doctrine
for the welfare and for liberation of being free from bondage and suffering of
earthly existence. He found that the
formation of Bhikkhuni Sangha would be a great danger for the future existence
of the life of pure holiness, because it would be impossible for the monks and
nuns to lead a religious life due to the close contact of the opposite
sex. He was conscious of human
weakness. Some monks and nuns would have
earnest aspirations for spiritual life and certainly they would overcome the
temptations that come in the way of leading the ascetic’s life. So he decided to establish two separate
Sanghas. Naturally by virtue of their
position and physical ability men hold the superior position. The nuns were left under the supervision of
the male teachers who were selected from the learned Thera’s. Therefore the relations between the monks and
the nuns would be like the teachers and the Pupils. As a rule teachers should have some rights
and privileges in order to guide the pupils.
Buddhism was introduced
to Ceylon in the middle of the third century B.C. under the Maurya Emperor
Asoka. At the time of the Buddha,
Buddhism spread mainly within the limits of Madhyadesa and Pragdesa and Asoka
was the first person to propagate Buddhism in distant countries21.It
is a historical fact that Buddhism was brought to Ceylon by MahindaThera, the
son of Emperor Asoka of India. Asoka
himself mentions in his Rock Edict XII about his son and daughter, Mahinda and
Sanghamitta.
At the end of the Third
Council which was inaugurated at Pataliputta in the reign of Asoka, Tissa the
son of Moggali who was the President of the Council resolved that the law of
Buddha should be communicate to foreign countries. Among the Missionaries, Mahinda who carried
Buddhism to Ceylon stands out as an undoubtedly historical figure. Detailed information about his ministration
and activities are found in the Dipavamsa, and the Mahavamsa the Chronicles of
Ceylon. The women of Ceylon did not lag
behind. They became very zealous to the
new religion. It is mentioned22 that
Anula, the consert of the sub King Mahanaga, the younger brother of king
Devanampiyatissa and the ladies of the court wanted to take Pabbajja ordination
and joint he order. Theri Sanghamitta
sister of Thera Mahinda and daughter of Emperor Asoka went to Sri Lanka with
other nuns Theri Sanghamitta on her arrival initiated Anula and five hundred
other women into the Order. After her
ordination Anula became an Arahat23 and she was the first woman
Arahat in Ceylon. With the ordination of
Anula and her followers, the order of female disciples was founded in Sri
Lanka.
It is narrated that the
queen Anula and her followers observing the Ten Precepts were given ordination
and thus the lineage of Bhikkhuni ordination was consecrated. During 4th or 5th
Century A.D. the Bhikkhunis from Sri Lanka travelled to China and stated to
have passed the lineage of the Bhikkhuni Sangha there. It is the Theravada traditions which prevail
in Sri Lanka.
It is also recorded
that during Han dynasty (25-220 A.D.), that is during 1st and 2nd Century A.D.
Buddhism travelled to China. The Vinaya
Texts which were translated during mid-3rd Century A.D. under the guidance of
the Dharmagupta schools expressed no distinctive variations from that of the
Pali canonical Vinaya Text. Although
existence of the Bhikkhuni or the Bhikkhuni Sangha in China during early
centuries appeared to be very obscure.
According to 'The Biographies of Nuns' by the monk Paw Chiang of Liang
dynasty (502-477 A.D.) had a clear mention that one Chung Ling-1 of P'eng Ch'en,
born to be the daughter of the Governor in 287 A.D. having inspired by the
Buddhistic thoughts had undergone through the Buddha's Doctrine Teachings under
a learned monk Fa-shin.
In fact the basic
tenets of Buddhism that the 'world is monetary' and 'full of sorrow' and
'non-soul', clearly struck women than men, who by their very nature felt deeply
the pain of life and death. These are
beautifully illustrated in the story of Kisagotami and Patacara.
Complete dependence, in
which the self will never functioned except obeying was gradually vanishing Dr.
I.B. Horner claimed – "Although their activities were confined within
certain spheres – principally the domestic, social and religious-their position
in general began to improve. The exclusive
supremacy of man began to give way before the increasing emancipation of
woman. This movement, if a development
so nearly unorganized, unvoiced and unled, may be called movement, was fostered
and accelerated by the innate intelligence of the women themselves, until it
was acknowledged that they were what they were silently claiming to be –
responsible, rational creatures with intelligence and with will power.24
The movement for total
emancipation of liberation of woman which could be achieved following the
dictates laid down by the Buddha did not reach its fruition. It was certainly a great achievement for a
woman when she was permitted to become a nun, for as a nun she could even
attain Arhatship. But no woman however
could attain to Buddhahood without being born as man.25Buddha was
well aware of the sentiment and incidence of injustice generated against the
female in Indo-Aryan Society. Therefore
he could not encourage these nuns to reconsider the restriction imposed on them
in the shape of "Atthagarudhamma' in future.26On the other
hand, he ordered – 'Ananda, these Atthagarudhamma (i.e. the eightfold
restriction) prescribed by myself for Bhikkhunis should never be transgressed
throughout their life.27This position prevails even today.28
Notes
and References:
1. Hastings
J. Ed. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. 8, p. 799.
2. VinayaPitaka.
Vol.II. Ed. Herman Oldenberg, London, Williams Norgate, 1880, p. 253.
3. Apadana,
Vol.II, TheriApadana, P.T.S. No. 30, p. 592.
4. BhikkhuShilabhadra,
Buddhabani, Calcutta, Maha Bodhi Society 1959, p. 58.
5. VinayaPitaka.,
Vol.II, p. 253.
6. VinayaPitaka, Vol. II, Chap. X, p. 253.
7. Bhagaban
Buddha, Bengali translation, by Chandradaya Bhattacharya of the original
Marathi, New Delhi, Sahitya Academy, 1980, pp.145ff.
8. VinayaPitaka.,
Vol. II, p.255.
9. Cullavagga,
x, 17.
10. VinayaPitaka,
Vol. iv, Ed. H. Oldenberg, p.315.
11. VinayaPitaka
, Vol. II, pp. 380ff.
12. Mahavagga,
1, 56.
13. The
Dhammapada, tr. S. Radhakrishnan, Madras, Oxford University Press, 1950, verse
133, p.103.
14. Gustav Roth in Introduction of his “
Bhikshuni –Vinaya, p. 111-113.
15. In her Introduction of “The Bhikkhuni Patimokkha
of the Six Schools”, Dr. Chatusuman kabil singh opines ‘I relalised the prime
importance of the Bhikkhuni Patimokkha of the six schools which have been
preserved in the Chinese Tripitaka. During King Asoka’s time 18schools were
mentioned but the monastic rules of the rest are no more available, for this
reason the monastic rules of six remaining schools became even more significant
and valuable. They are almost the only accessible means to trace to the various
communities of the bhikkhunis in the past history. Gustav Roth in Introduction
of his “ Bhikshuni –Vinaya, p. 1.
16. Ibid,
p. 2, in the table, Th.=Theravada; Dh.=Dharmagupta; Mhs.=Mahisasaka; Msg.=
Mahasanghika; Sar.=Sarvastivada; M.Sar.=Mulasarvastivada.
17. A
History of Pali Literature, M. Winternitz, Vol-II, pp. 28ff.
18. Sumangalavilasini,
pts. I, p. 17. History of Pali Literature, Vol-I, p.19.
19. Coomarswamy,
Ananda Buddha and Gospel of Buddhism, London, George G. Harrap& Co, 1916,
p.160.
20. Conze,
E. Buddhism, Oxford, p.58.
21. Kern,
H. Manual of Indian Buddhism, MotilalBanarasidas pub. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
1898, p.116.
22. Mahavamsa,
Chap. xiv, 56-57; Dipavamsa, ed. Oldenberg, chap, xii, 82.
23. Mahavamsa,
Ed. William Geiger, chap XIX, p.65.
24. Horner,
I. B, Woman under primitive Buddhism, p. 2.
25. It
is inconceivable that a woman can be either a Tathagata, AnguttaraNikaya, PTS, Part -1, p. 29.
26. Even
the Bhikkhus could not accept their status raised by Buddha. Their attitude
reflected in the charges brought against venerable Ananda in the first council,
in the instance, Ananda permitted woman to salute the Holy-body of the
Tathagata after the ‘Great-decease’ and the tears of the weeping woman that
fell on the Holy-body made it impure (....Anandadukkham yam
tvammatugamehibhagavatosarirampathamamvandapesi,
tasamrodantinamBhagavatosariramassukenamakkhitam), and the second that the
pleaded for the admission of woman into the Order (.......Ananda dukkatam yam
tvam matugamassa Tathagatappabdite Dhamma vinaye pabbajja mussukamakasi,). This
attitude of the monks who are believed to be most enlightened part of the
society betrayed the prevailing social milieu. (Vinaya Cullavagga, Ch.XI, x,
p.289) ; 2500 years of Buddhism, p.35.
27. “Ananda
maya patigacceeva bhikkhuninam atthagarudhamma pannatta yava jivam anatikkamaniya’ti,
Cullavagga,X, 6, I, p.256.
28. A
Buddhist nuns (in Nepal) called the eight Guru-Dhamma a ‘sieve’ (sodhani) when
Prof, Goustav Roth asked her about their meanings. (Bhiksuni-Vinaya, p.III.3).
