Buddhism and Inequalities

Sumanapal Bhikkhu

Difference is sine qua non with creation. The hills are different from the plains. The seas are different from land. The desert is so different from the fertile land. There are numerous kinds of birds and beasts and insects and microorganisms. The plants and the trees are of countless kinds. The aquatic world teems with varied and variegated lives and things. The skies are loaded with stars and innumerable other ethereal objects. The same difference is perceived between man and, man between races and nations. Difference implies inequality. In Maths a could be greater than B or B could be greater than A. Or else A could be greater or equal to B and B could be greater than or equal to A and so on, But Maths is not our focus. The proper study of mankind is man. We are focused on man in our present paper. Humanity is plagued with myriads of inequalities. There are health disparities and healthcare inequality. There might be a population who are genetically programmed to die early, that is whose life expectancy is genetically less, and another population who are genetically programmed to live longer. Besides same health care is not provided to every member of a population. Health inequity is widespread. In India; the rural people are deprived of the health care that an urban guy is wont to get. Health care inequality is often due to economic inequality. Those who are rich could afford clean environment enjoy good health commonly. But in the same city where the rich reside the residents of the ghettoes live in a very unhygienic environment. Modern cities especially are a horrid spectra of plethora of poverty living side by side with plenty. The rich can afford very good medical treatment But Alas! The poor die of lack of medical treatment in a city where opportunities for getting medical treatment are ample. Economic inequality implies a state of affairs where assets wealth and income are distributed in equally. In a population or among countries. It affects intimately the notions of equity such as equality of outcome equality of opportunity and life expectancy. There should be equal opportunity for everyone. But since every ones birth and grooming is never the same there should be equality of outcome. And of course it is surmised that where the people are more or less affluent their age expectancy is high. The first economists like Adam Smith and Ricardo deliberated on the distribution of wealth among the factors of production. Now a day’s economists are more concerned with distribution of wealth among the people so that disparity in income is never great. At least everyone should have the bare necessities of life.  Besides there are rich countries and poor countries. This leads us to international inequality. United States France, Japan, Germany, U.K, Australia and Canada have only 13 percent of world population. But ironically enough they have 45 percent of worlds PPP or purchasing power parity. Then there is the educational inequality or difference of efficacy experienced by students coming from different community’s income group families with different backgrounds and so on. There is gender inequality. It is due to biological difference between male female and third gender. Besides roles assigned to each gender are also responsible for gender inequality. There is participation inequality. Everyone cannot get the opportunity to participate in an organization or in a festival. There is inequality in levels of participation in any community activity. Apart from economic inequality everywhere there is social inequality. There are socially defined categories and some of those categories may have greater access to power. Then there is social stratification In modern societies there are upper class middle class and lower class Earlier in ancient Rome there were the patricians and plebeians. We will not for the moment deliberate on whether inequality is good or bad. Our question is why such inequalities do exist.  Surely on the surface much of it is man made. One wonders what man has made of man. Imagine a utopia where economic inequalities and social inequalities are   eradicated. Even then mathematical inequalities or sex inequalities will persist, besides there will be child prodigies and morons Heredity and environment nature and nurture cannot satisfactorily explain them. The advent of a superman like Buddha cannot be explained in terms of heredity and environment. Buddhism however does not pin its faith on anything uncaused whatever. Buddhism as such does not discard the many causes of inequality that we are commonly wont to put forward. Buddhism asserts that there are always multiple causes behind any phenomenon. And one of such causes of inequality among men is karmaphala. Once Lord Buddha was accused of begetting a child by a woman. It was a downright lie. The lie was found out. But the Lord said that nothing should be done against that false woman. Because in one of his earlier births he had doubted the honesty of a saint. He had to reap the fruits of that action of his earlier birth during the present birth.[Chichamanavika]. Besides a Jataka tale narrates how a saint is punished on false allegation. An iron rod was thrust into his head. This was because when he was a child he had sportingly thrust a pin into the head of an ant. Now Avatamsaka sutra states that cause is result and result is cause. That is a paradox But a fruit tree is the result of the fruit seeds. Thus the fruit seeds are the cause of the fruit tree. But at the same time the fruit tree bears fruits and causes the fruit seed. The egg is the cause of a hen and again the hen is the cause of an egg. But Buddhism does not pin its faith on one cause only of a phenomenon. Sowing seed into the soil is essential for growing. But simply sowing the seed is not all, The soil should be O Kay. The climate should be suitable for the plant to grow. Thus there is a cause and subsidiary causes   of a phenomenon. The subsidiary causes could be called conditions required for a phenomenon to take place. Buddhism posits that nothing is discrete in this existence. Everything whatever in this existence is linked with everything whatever there is in the existence. In other words if an atom could be annihilated on earth there could be a tremor in Andromeda and the whole multiversity would be affected. Thus behind every phenomenon as such the whole existence is involved. This is because the existence of anything in the world is possible only through its relation with other things in the world. If there were no readers the writers would not exist. Hence the law of dependent origination in Buddhism. When we apply the law of dependent origination to the life of a sentient being viz., man there is the chain of twelve links. It is apparently a vicious circle or the wheel of life .We could begin with ignorance, Ignorance implies ignorance of the four noble truths especially of the first one that tells us that life is suffering and it also implies  ignorance of the fact that there is no substance in anything whatever in this existence. Ignorance4 is as it were a blind man or woman. Ignorance conditions the next step viz., Samskara or volitional formation Samskara implies impulse to act. This impulse to act is caused in the darkness of ignorance. Samskara is depicted as a potter working at a pot. Samskara conditions the next step in consciousness. It is the consciousness of the world of eye and ear. It is represented by a monkey that leaps from one place to another impelled by thoughtless energy. Monkey energy pulls us away from ourselves and from dharma Consciousness leads to the next link in name and form. Form implies corporeality and name implies mentality. The name and form join the five aggregates and create an individual existence. It is a boarder on a boat that sails in the Samsara or worldly life. Consciousness conditions the next link where the individual is pent up in six faculties viz sight hearing smell taste and touch and mind. This Sadayatan is a house as it were with six casements. Sadayatana relates to the next link contact Contact implies contact of the faculties and objects. This contact conditions the sensations which is the next link Sensation of pleasure and pain leads to the next link which is craving Craving, the second noble truth asserts, is the cause of suffering Craving is represented by the portrait of a man drinking from empty beer bottles Ha Ha! Craving conditions the next link clinging. We cling to the notions of self and substance. We cling to wombs those results in rebirth. This is a monkey trying to reach a fruit. Clinging leads to the next condition Bhava or new becoming which is represented by the picture of a woman making love during an advanced stage of pregnancy. Becoming conditions the next link birth Birth necessarily brings about the next link viz., old age and death or dissolution of what came to be. The momentum of life however continues to carry these constituent on beyond the zero point to open out a fresh life where consciousness will be associated with feeling sensation and so on. Then the other stages in the chain follow one after another. The twelve Nidanas however do not advocate transmigration of soul. Because Buddhism does not believe in substance everything in the phenomenal world exists through its relation to other things and nothing under the sun has any intrinsic meaning. Here the post moderns like Derrida see eye to eye with Lord Buddha If there is no soul how does rebirth take place? With Lord Buddha the energy or conditioning created by one life is reborn into another. These twelve Nidanas could give us the impression that our life is determined by our past karmas But can we subscribe to that belief? Suppose a car driver who is drunk runs over a person? Should we say that the person who is run over deserves his death because of his actions in earlier life? If this is granted one must say that those who die in the war also deserve their deaths those who have been swept away by earthquakes and tsunamis deserve their deaths Nope. Women it is said are spiritually backward. Hence they do not deserve honor that is due to man, Women are the second sex because of their past karma. The rich are rich because of their karma in their earlier birth and the poor are poor because of their earlier birth. So the poor have nothing to complain against exploitation. In case of political oppression should we remain passive? Because the oppressors are oppressing us preordained by their earlier karma and those who are being oppressed are reaping their karma of earlier birth. No. To put up with any kind of oppression and any kind of man made inequality does not see eye to eye with the tenets of Buddhism. And Buddhist theory of karma is only one of the universal laws that catalyze change or Niyamas. The five Niyamas impel everything in the world as Buddhaghosa posits. They are Utu Niyama or the laws of physics chemistry geology and the like that govern the world of matter, Bija Niyama or the laws of biology, Kamma Niyama or the energy that is generated by our thoughts words and action, Dhamma Niyama that implies the notions of non self and void and finally Chitta Niyama or laws of the mind. The Buddhists look upon mind as a sense like other senses of sight and hearing and so on. Besides Gati Upadhi Kala and Poyoga are equally important in shaping amans fortune. Gati means birth Upadhi implies physical   condition Kala means time and Poyoga means ones endeavors in life. Lord Buddha himself says that truth cannot be the subject matter of discussion. And language cannot give us the truth. It is at bottom ambiguous. Besides a reader reads his mind in any text. In other words one understands a notion or thought according to his capability. With us Buddhist theory karma does not speak of fatalism. No everything is not determined by past Karma. Right now I look at the condition of my laptop on my lap. This condition is the doing of the past. .But it does not necessarily mean that it will remain in this condition ever more. At present the condition of the laptop is related with the state of the battery and the condition of the electric supply the condition of the bed in which I sit and the condition of me or mind which operates the laptop. And each of these relations do operate to determine the present state of the laptop. Suppose the battery runs out. The position of the computer has to be changed, the adaptor and the cord must be connected where the plug point. Similarly true that my past karma has determined my present social state economic state May be in a subtle way they have been carried forward from the earlier birth. But at any time any person has many options to choose whereby one could change the course that was probable due to the fruits of his earlier actions The more I give myself exposure to Lord Buddha’s teaching I will be enlightened with the notions of Metta Upekkha and the like. And since with mental physical actions and words we can navigate, we have no constraint in being socially engaged. Engaged Buddhism implies seeking ways to apply the findings in meditation and the teachings of Lord Buddha to social political environmental and economic suffering and injustice. It is the essence of Buddhism indeed. Lord Buddha himself left his hearth and home to seek relief for the suffering man. Compassion for the suffering humanity is the essential requirement for a man to become a Buddhist. Buddhism posits that each element of the multiverse is inalienably related to the other elements of the multiverse. And this one must perceive to become a Bodhisattva. A Buddhist, therefore, cannot but respond to mayhems anywhere in the world be it the killing of Jews in Natzi Germany or the killing of the Japanese people at Hiroshima. What Venerable Thich Nhat Hahn of Vietnam calls engaged Buddhism seems to this author as the core of Buddhism? In the light of engaged Buddhism we must fight to eradicate human suffering and inequality among men everywhere in the globe. In modern India Mahatma Gandhis experiments with truth has been the pathfinder. We must fight with compassion. We must fight with the weapons of non violence. We must have the eagerness for truth. We must not harbor any hatred for our enemies’ viz., false views.

Yoga and Buddhism

                                                          

  Sumanapal Bhikkhu

Meditation is one of the most central concepts in the Buddhist practice and it can take different forms. Buddhism naturally encompasses states of meditative absorption which are referred as jhana or dhyana. They are thought to originate in the Yoga ideas which Buddha have taken and developed in a rather different way. Yoga as practiced by Yogis used to be regarded as a state of meditative absorption but which was an end on their own. Buddha brought about a revolution in this field because of his teaching that meditative absorption cannot be an end in themselves and it must mix with liberating cognition.¹

The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which were borrowed by the Buddha from the ascetic (shramana) tradition.² Zen is a from of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism had remarkable similarities with yoga. There are certain of yoga which are important for Zen in particular and Buddhism in general.³

Yoga occupies a very important position in Tibetan Buddhism. The Nyingma tradition which is the path of meditation practice is divided into non yanas or vehicles. The last six o them are ‘yoga yanas’, ‘Kriya yoga’, ‘Upa yoga’, ‘Yoga yana’, ‘Maha yoga’, ‘Anu yoga’ and the ultimate practice ‘Ati yoga.4  The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama’s summer temple at Luklalng.5

Yoga and Buddhism are sister traditions which evolved in the same spiritual culture of ancient India. The use many similar terms and many similar practices and principles. As a result, many Western practitioners find it difficult to distinguish between these two.6

But at the same time, these two traditions have their differences which are equally important. Generally the Hindu Yoga tradition sought to absorb Buddhism into itself by making a fresh interpretation of the Buddha in the light of the Vedanta.  Buddhism, on the other hand, upheld its separate identity by emphasizing its differences with Vedic theism or the Vedic recognition of the higher self. In logic texts we come across refutations of Buddhist teachings and at he the same time refutations of yogic and Vedanta teaching and at the same time refutations of yogic and Vedanta teachings are common in Buddhist texts. So both the connections and the differences of these two systems should be kept in mind in order to do justice to them.

The Buddhist schools in spite of sharing many ideas with Vedic philosophy such as Karma and rebirth did not recognize the authority of the Vedas and diverge in a number of important Vedic concepts. Meditation is employed by all Buddhist schools but specific yogic practices, Pranayama and Mantra for instance are added by some of them. Some Buddhists consider the Buddha as a great yogi possessing occult and psychic powers.

Buddhist is divided into two main categories while these two are further divided into many varieties. The northern or Mahayana variety prevails in China, Japan, Tibet, South Korea and Adjacent countries. This type of Buddhism is most widely known in the world. Chan, Zen, Buddhist Tantra, Vajrayana and Dzogchen are included in this type. The southern or Theravada tradition is found in South and South East Asia countries like Srilanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia etc. it is the Theravada tradition which is the old of the two. I Tantric from of the Mahayana tradition use breathing exercises, mantrans, visualizations and deities much like the Yoga tradition. The Theravada tradition has les in common with Yoga, in spite of using similar meditation and concentration methods. This tradition is opposed to devotional worship and the use of deities such as occurs in yogic paths. For instance, the use of mantra has often been criticized by Vipassana teachers. This use of mantra is common in Hindu Yogic tradition as well as in Mahayana Buddhism. In reality, Tibetan Buddhism, with its mantras, deities and yogic teachings has more similarities to Hinduism in its teaching than to any Buddhist schools.

Buddhist scriptures both Theravada and Mahayana refutes the concepts of Atman, Brahman, Ishvara and the main tenets of Yoga and Vedanta which they consider as false doctrines. Many Vedanta Sankhya and Yoga texts contain refutations of Buddhist doctrines which are similarly regarded as untrue.

Both Buddhism and Yoga are meditations tradition designed to help the practitioners transcend Karma and rebirth and realized the truth of consciousness. To them, suffering and impermanence are inherent in all birth whether it is animal or god and seek to get rid of it by developing a higher awareness. The suggestions they put forward are very similar – the need to dissolve the ego, the sense of the me and separate self. Both traditions believe that enlightenment can be achieved through meditation.

Both Buddhism and Yoga recognize dharma which is the principle of truth and natural law and this is the basic law of the universe which we must understand.

Both Yoga and Buddhism are meditation traditions designed to help the practitioner transcend Karma and rebirth and realize the truth of consciousness. According to these two traditions suffering and impermanent are inherent in all births whether it is animal, human or god and try to make it less severe by developing a higher awareness. The need to dissolve the ego been emphasized by both of them as well as the need to return to the original reality that is not limited by the separate self. Both traditions emphasize enlightenment or inner illumination to be realized through meditation.

Both systems recognize dharma, the principle of truth or natural law, as the basic law of the universe we must be understood. Such dharmas are the law of Karma and the unity of all sentient beings. Buddhism defines itself as Buddha dharma or the dharma of the enlightened ones, which is seen as a tradition transcending time or place. Yoga defines itself as part of the Hindu tradition called Sanatana Dharma, the universal or eternal dharma, which is not defined according to any particular teacher or tradition. Both traditions have called themselves Arya Dharma or the Dharma of noble men.

The main differences between the two systems are over their cosmic view and way of practice. Vedic systems are built upon fundamental principles like the Self (Atman), the Creator (Ishvara), and Godhead (Brahman). Buddhism rejects all such ontological principles as mere creations of the mind itself. In this regard, Vedic system are more idealistic and Buddhist systems more Phenomenological.

A part from such philosophical differences both system share the basic ethical values like non-violence, truthfulness, non attachment and no-stealing. The voices that Buddhist monks take and those that monks and take in the Yoga tradition are the same, so are those of Jain Monks.

Buddhism generally rejects the Self (Atma or Purusha) of Yoga – Vedanta and emphasizes the non-Self (anatman). It says that there is no Self in anything and therefore that the Self is merely a fiction of the mind. The Yoga-    Vedanta tradition emphasizes Self realization or the realization of our true nature. It states that the Self does not exist in anything external. If we cannot find a Self in something it would not be the Self but that particular thing. We cannot point out anything as the Self because the Self is the one who points all things out. The Self transcends the mind body complex, but this is not to say that it does not exist. Without the Self we would not exist. We would not even be able to ask questions.

They yogic tradition is based upon recognition of, respect for and devotion to God or the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe. One of its main principles is that of surrender to God (Isvara-Pranidhana) which is said to the most method to Self – realization. Some degree or theism exists in the various Yoga–Vedanta teachings, though in Advatic systems Isvara is subordinated to the Self-absolute, which even the Creator. Transcend this is perhaps the main point of difference between Yoga and Buddhism. Buddhism rejects God (Ishvara) or a cosmic Lord or creator. It sees no need for any creator and considers that living beings arise through Karma alone.

Both systems see Karma as the main causative factor behind rebirth in the world. However, in Buddhism Karma is said to be a Self-existent principle. Buddhism states that the world exists owing to the beginning less Karma of living beings. In the of Yoga tradition, however, Karma is not a self existent. The world is created by God (Isvara), the creative aspect consciousness. Karma is a mere force of inertia and attachment cannot explain the creation of the world but only our attachment to it. Karma is regarded as a force dispensed by God, which cannot exist by itself, just as a law code cannot exist without a judge. However, some other Vedic system, also, like Purba Mimamasa put more emphasis upon Karma than upon God.

Both systems regard Nirvana or mergence in the Absolute as a primary goal of practice. However, in the Buddhist tradition, particularly the Theravadin, Nirvana is generally described only negatively as cessation. It is given no positive appellations. In the Vedic tradition Nirvana is described in a positive way as mergence into Brahman or Sachidanda.

            Yoga with its recognition of God emphasizes devotion and surrender to God (Isvara pranidhana) as one of the main spiritual paths. It contains an entire Yogic approach based on devotion. Bhakti Yoga, through which we open our hearts to God does not appear as a Buddhist path. That is why we don’t find any significant tradition of great devotees and singers of Divine Love in Buddhism like Chaitanaya, Ramakrishna, Tulsidas or Mirabai.

            Buddhism has developed the role of the Bodhisattvas, the enlightened one who stays on after enlightenment to teach and guide living beings. Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, technically speaking, are not duties or gods and goddesses. They are not the parents of all creatures but merely wise guides and teachers. They are often described as great beings who once lived and attained enlightenment at some point in time and took various vows to stay in the world to hap save living beings.

            There are number of people in the West today, and even in India, who are combining Yoga and Buddhism, as well as less related traditions. Some people may try to follow teachers in both traditions of course; teachings which are common to both traditions like non violence are easy to correlate.

            Today we are entering into a global age that requires the development of a global spirituality. This requires honoring all forms of the inner quest regardless of where and when they come from, even if our inclinations are different. This unity of truth cuts across all boundaries and break downs all divisions between human beings. It is crucial that such meditation traditions, as Yoga and Buddhism form a common front in light of the needs of the global era. All such true spiritual traditions, as Yoga and Buddhism form a common front in light of the needs global era. All such true spiritual traditions face many common enemies in this materialistic age. The common values of protecting the earth, non violence, recognition of the law of Karma and the practice of meditation are perhaps crucial voice to deliver as out of our present crisis. But in coming together the diversity of teachings should be preserved, which means not only recognizing their unity but respecting their differences.

Bibliography:

1.      Bhattacharya, Shastri, Diesh Chandra, Yoga Psychology of Patajanli and Some other Aspects of India Psychology, Sanskrit College, Calcutta, 1984.

Buddhism in China and Japan: A Birds eye view

Sumanapal Bhikkhu

China is one of the oldest Civilizations in the world. The Chinese history dates back to two thousands B.C. At that time Shang dynasty was ruling China. The people then used to worship Weather gods and Sky gods. They were found foretelling. At that time they worship land, reveres, sea, stars, winds, moon, sun etc. Shang-ti was the chief of gods. The king used to rule with the win date from heaven. The ancient Chinese people believed that their four fathers were also Gods.

     The Shang dynasty ended and the Chow dynasty began in 1046 B.C. and it’s lasted up to 256 B.C. During this period Taoism and Confucianism showed up.

     Around 6^th century B.C. Laotse appeared on the scene and his philosophy is known as Taoism. Taoism posits that there is a universal force which flows through all living begins. One must cultivate this force in himself one must respects this force. Only then one can get at happiness. Taoism further pointed out that one must not get at anything by the employment of physical force. One should always compromise with enemies. One should try to win over the natural force in once favor. Taoism becomes very popular with the people.

    Presently after Confucianism popped up Confucius or Master Kung was born on the 28^th September 551 B.C. He was the profounder of a philosophy that is known as Confucianism. The philosophy of Confucius teaches us that we should behave with others with respect politeness and kindness. Honor and morality are the two pillars on which the philosophy of Confucius rests. Confucius is all for good government, he is more interested in creating stable society where there should be sustainable development. He introduced the philosophy of bureaucracy so that the people are ruled properly. He was all for ancestor worship but he did not bother much about Metaphysics. He wanted that the farmers should remains farmers and the nobility should remain the nobility.

    When conscious and Laotse showed up in China in India Lord Buddha appeared on the scene. Lord Buddha is said to have promulgated a philosophy known as Buddhism. But Lord Buddha never claimed that he was the founder of any new religion or philosophy. There were Buddha’s before him and he only repeated what other Buddha’s had exhorted. Buddhism soon spread all over India and finally it crossed the mountains and reached China. During the rule of Emperor Ming. Emperor Ming was the second emperor of the Han dynasty. He rules China during the 1^st Century A.D. Emperor Ming saw a golden man radiating light in a dream. He told about his dream to his friends and courtiers. One of them told the King that such a person had really leaved. He was Lord Buddha excited the King Cent man in guest of or in such of Lord Buddha and his teachings. They came to Central Asia and they meet to Buddhist Saints. The saints came to China with lot of Buddhist Scriptures on the back of a white horse. Thus Buddhism entered China. At that time Taoism and Confucianism to major religious in China.

   At the outset Buddhism had a handful of followers in China. Buddhism pointed out that nothing is present in the world. There is nothing called sole and sole less. In this ever changing existence sorrows and sufferings are a must. One cannot get read of them ordinarily. One must follow a part of moderation to rise above the sorrows.

    The four Noble truth sources up Lord Buddha’s doctrine. They are –

1.      Suffering is inevitably and common.

2.      Suffering takes plays because of our ignorance and greed.

3.      By destroying greed and ignorance the causes of suffering can be destroyed.

4.      Path to ends suffering is possible by following the Eight fold path.

The Eight fold paths of the Eight fold path are as follows –

1.      Samna Ditthi

2.      Samna Sankappa

3.      Samna Vaca

4.      Samna Kammanta

5.      Samna Ajivo

6.      Samna Vayamo

7.      Samna Sati

8.      Samna Samadhi

  Buddhist belief in ‘Rebirth’ of the self. They also belief in karma all actions have consequences that resulting ‘Rebirth’. If any one pursues the right karma along the eight fold path one can get read of rebirth psycho at this point the person attains Nirvana.

   By the by as we have already pointed out, Buddhism came to China during the 1^st Century A.D. from Central Asia Lord Buddha’s demise took place in the year 480 B.C. in Five hundred years time Buddhism evolved to a great extend. Different schools cropped up in India itself. And the branch of Buddhism that flourished in the Central Asia by the 1^st Century A.D. was Mahayana Buddhism. And it was this Mahayana Buddhism that reached China during the rule of Emperor Ming. Emperor Ming as it has been already pointed out belongs to the Han dynasty. With the full of the Han dynasty there were three separate kingdoms in China in the main. In there can time Buddhism had spread transcending the borders of India. To not only Central Asia but also to South-East Asia and South Asia. Each country away from India received Buddhism its own light consequently there were already different kinds of Buddhism. And during the period of the three kingdoms different parts of China. Wave in touch with different kinds of Buddhism come from different countries was Buddhism had spread. And Buddhist ideas come from different countries was shaped in an emergent mould in the light of Chinese native genius.

   Large numbers of Buddhist monks from different parts of the Asia come to China to propagate different school of Buddhism. And various texts were translated in to Chinese language. Talking cause from these various schools and numerous interpretations of Buddhist lo come from different lands impelled the Chinese people to assimilate Buddhism in their own way. As results there were a number of Chinese schools of Buddhism which were very much original inform and contend. Although all of them agreed with the basic tenets of Buddhism as propounded by Lord Buddha himself.

    There was the pure land Buddhism, it was propounded by Hui-ynan. He was all for the worship of Amitabha Buddha. He posited that if someone chants the name of Amitabha Buddha he will be born in the pure land of Amitabha in the life year after. In the pure land it will be easier for the persons who seek Nirvana.

    Another major school that showed up in China was the Tientai School. Zhiyi was the founder and the greatest exponent of the school. Philosophy of the school it’s focused on Lotus Sutra.

   Then there was the Chan School of Buddhism its sky is unique. It is not much a set of beliefs. It is asset of practices. It uses meditations to transcend thoughts and attain Nirvana. It was Bodhi dharma who introduced Chan in China. And he mingled meditative aegis with martial activities. The center of martial activities flourished in school in monastery in mainland China.

    Ironically enough Buddhism in China moved from strength to strength while it was waning in India. During the Tang dynasty Six hundred A.D. onwards Chan Buddhism became the main kind of Buddhism in China. Chan Buddhist setup many monasteries were both monks and nuns used to live many influential ladies of the Tong court, supported the Buddhist monasteries. The monasteries were exemeed from tax. These monasteries received money and land as donations but towards the end of Tang dynasty emperor Wu Zong turned against Buddhism. He wanted all Chinese people to embrace to Taoism. Buddhist monasteries and temples were desecrated. That way the emperor could enrich his coffers. After the death of Wu Zong persiqueisition hopped and Buddhism became more wide then ever under the Sung dynasty in Eleven hundred in A.D. onwards Buddhism become very popular.

    When first introduced in the 1^st cent A.D. Buddhism had to complete with Taoism as a religion. Taoism is a religion native to China. It is mystic in approach. And so there is much in common between Buddhism and Taoism at the outset the Buddhist spread their philosophy borrowing a lot from Tao vocabulary. During the period of the three kingdoms Chinese people were put in real travels. Because the three kingdoms vied with one another to achieve super monk during this period Buddhism apparently out dead the popularity of Taoism. Because Buddhism can addressed sufferings. The Taoist on the other hand do not view life as sufferings.

    Be that is way the to behalf systems were so competitive that many teaches from both side borrowed ideas from the other. Now a day many Chinese behalf in elements from both schools of thought.

    True that in 1949 China held out atheism. But Buddhism was not extinguished in China. After 1980 reforms in China Buddhism seems to have been changed with a fresh base of life.

    Today there are estimated hundred million followers of Buddhism in China and over 20,000 temples (www.chinesecultureabent.com) Buddhism in Japan:- It took several centuries for Buddhism to travel from India to Japan. It was during the fourth centuries A.D. that Buddhism crossed the borders of China and reached Korea. There Buddhism enriched itself with the wealth of local religion Syhamanism.

    It was the Sixth century that a delegation from Korea arrived at the court of the emperor of Japan. The Koreans brought with them Buddhist Scriptures and an idol of Lord Buddha. They brought with them a letter from Korean Prince Buddhist Dharma. This was how Buddhism was officially introduced to Japan. Most of the aristocracy of Japan were however indignant to this new religion. The native religion of Japan was Shinto. It involves the worship of Kami or Spirits. There were Spirits of particular places. There was the deity of Mount Fuji also Sun Gods was worshiped. The word ‘Shinto’ is derived from ‘Shin’ meaning gods or Spirits and to meaning Tao or the path. Shinto can be seen also as from of enemies. And Shintoism prevailed until the reign of the empress. During her reign in the Seven century Buddhism became the state religion. The impressed and her legend built temples and setup monasteries. They encourage a expression of Buddhism is art and literature.

    During the time period between Seventh and Ninth century Buddhism was very power China, and many a Buddhist crossed the sea they reached the source of Japan and spread Buddhism there. China had already developed different schools of Buddhism. And its Chinese school help developed a corresponding Japanese school of Buddhism. This school flourished in Japan during ‘Nara’ period of Japanese history. Later most of them mingled together to form what we call ‘Naro’ Buddhism today.

    The ‘Ho sso’ school in Japan was introduced by ‘Dosho’ went to Xuan Zhang to learn Buddhism and consequently he was influenced by the Yogacara school. The Yogacara school of Buddhism assets that things have no reality in themselves. The reality as we perceive a simply a process of knowing.

    In Seven hundred forty the Chinese monk Shen-shsing introduced the flower garland school or Korean school in Japan. The Kegan school posits that everything in the universe is in everything else. Even the absolute is reflected in everything and in every being.

   These two schools namely ‘Kegan’ and ‘Ho sso’ belong to ‘Nara’ Buddhism.

   After ‘Nara’ period others schools of Buddhism croupped up.

   In the Eighth century the monk ‘Sai cho’ went to China and return with the doctrine of Tien tai school. It became tendal in Japan.

   Like ‘Sai cho’ the monk ‘Kuka’ went to China. He was initiated in ‘Tantra’. He introduced Vajrayana in Japan. The sect that was created by him is known as Shingong school of Buddhism in Japan.

   ‘Honen’ introduced the Chinese school of pure land in Japan during the 12^th century. The pure land school of Japan is known as ‘Jodo-Shu’.

   ‘Honen’ disciple ‘Shinran’ founded a new school of Buddhism known as ‘Jodo-Shin-Shu’. It is Buddhism for the lay man. Write now ‘Jodo-Shin-Shu’ school is most popular in Japan.

    ‘Eisai’ was a monk who went to China to learn Chan Buddhism in the 12^th century. He became the first Chan or in Japanese Zen master in Japan. After the denies of ‘Eisai’ ‘Myozen’ took his place. ‘Dogen’ came to him to learn the truths of Zen Buddhism. Later he went to China. Back from China he introduced ‘Soto-Zen’ in Japan.

    The uniquely Japanese school of Buddhism was how ever founded by “Nichirem’. He opined that the Lotus Sutra enshrined in it the entire doctrine of Buddhism. And they were a school name ‘Nichirem’ Buddhism. Scenes then the practice of Buddhism guided by the different schools have been continuing till date.

    But it should be remembered that in Japan Shintoism and Buddhism co-exists along with Christianity. One much not be taken by surprise. If one finds the wedding in a family is organized ‘Shinto’ style and funeral in the same family is observed along Buddhist live.

  In China also there are temples where Lord Buddha ‘Confucious’ and ‘Laotse’ are worshiped in same temple.

  Perhaps the world could burned a lot from the religious tolerance observe in China and Japan.                                 

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v  Guest Lecturer, (in Evening) Tibetan Language, Department of Languages, Calcutta University, Guest Lecturer, (in Evening) Pali Language, Department of School of Language and Linguistics, Jadavpur University,