Relevance of Buddhism in 21st Century

Sumanapal Bhikkhu

Abstract:

Buddhism is a religion which does not blindly believe in the existence of God or a supernatural creator. The Buddha himself was opposed to the discussion of such subjects. The Buddha in his last message advised his disciples to take refuge in own self (Atta dipa bhavo). The Buddha in Kalam Sutra asked his disciples to have a rationalistic outlook and not to believe in anything without verification. Buddhism is not a religion in that sense it is a way of life. the true spirit of Buddhism is of rationalism and free thinking. That is why down the ages it has influenced the intellectuals of the world. In India it has influenced great men like Rabindranath Tagore and Swami Vivekananda and R. W. Emerson. Henry David Thubo and Walt Whitman in America. Other religious have suffered due to the advancement of science. Many beliefs held true so long were refuted by scientific discoveries, but Buddhism did not suffer the onslaughts of science to that degree because the Buddha himself had a scientific temperament. All these have made Buddhism a progressive religion which will continue to flourish in years to come.

                      Besides, Buddhism is more a code of conduct than a religion. The Buddha has outlined the ‘Panchasila’ on the basis of which people can live their life in peace and happiness. As long as man exists in this world the value of an honest and virtuous life cannot be diminished. Apart from this the Buddhist scriptures are filled with advice from the Buddha regarding environmental values and they are applicable to monastic and lay lifestyle alike.

                      Buddhism is based on love and compassion, in other words with loving kindness. The Buddha asked his disciples to scatter all around for the good and happiness of many. (Bahujano hitayo, Bahujano sukhayo). Even after the demise of the Buddha, Buddhist all over the world have followed this advice. To many people Buddhism and peace are synonymous. So even in the present 21st Century the teachings of the Buddha will continue to inspire Buddhists and non Buddhists alike in their effort to make the world a better place to live in.

“The most important product of the Indian mind which is of ultimate importance to the History of the World is and will be Buddhism”—said Maurice Winternitz on 17.10.1912 in the Foreword to the First Half of the second volume of his monumental work titled, “A History of Indian Literature.” His remark is quite appropriate even today because the last treasure of the Buddhist literature contains the sacred sayings of the Buddha, as well as their commentaries and spiritual interpretations. Apart from that they include some revolutionary statements made by the Buddha Himself and His disciples. In today’s world human life has totally changed from what it was during the Buddha’s time. Under such circumstances the Buddhist scholars are reinterpreting Buddhism with reference to modern topics like cloning ecology and environment, peace and non-violence, human rights and moral values, welfare economics and the like. These new interpretations may be simply termed as ‘Applied Buddhism,’ i.e. the applications of Buddhism in the modern way of life or the practical aspects of Buddhism. Nowadays the whole world is becoming a global village and various problems relating to politics and economics, population explosion, various types of pollution, scarcity of essential commodities, and indiscriminate use of human and natural resources are assuming gigantic proportions. In such a background applied Buddhism seems to be the only option for mankind to solve all these lapses and problems.

The Buddha prescribed the silas¹ or ‘moralities’ to enable man to live a happy and virtuous life. The aim of following the silas is to control our mental and physical actions. Next, the Buddha advises to control the mind through meditation. And finally a man directs all his energy to attain wisdom or ‘panna²’. This process of perfection is applicable both to monastic and lay lives. So the teachings of the Buddha is relevant to modern life and problems also. For this reason the Buddha’s preaching is called ‘akalika’ or timeless.

The Buddha himself gave his disciples to change, modifying his minor teachings according to the needs of the future. Some of his utterances will remain fresh forever. The timelessness of the Buddha’s teachings is found in (a) the recognition of the responsibility of the individual (b) the liberty of thinking (c) freedom from tensions, work drudgery and boredom through practical teachings of the Buddha (d) the unostentatious ethical principles and (e) Jhana or ‘meditation’ which is very much needed today in the highly technological and economically advanced climate.

The practical outlook of the Buddha is manifested in the very first sermon³ he delivered to his five disciples⁴ in the deer park of Sarnath on the fullmoon day of Asadha. This sermon is known as Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta and in this grand discourse the Buddha advises his disciples to shun the two extremes⁵ which are constant attachment to sensual pleasures and devotion to self mortification. The Buddha prescribed the ‘Majjhima Patipada⁶’ or the ‘Middle Path’, which is applicable even today to our life. The second part of the sermon deals with the four noble truths⁷. This first truth is that there is suffering, the second truth is that there is origin of suffering, the third tells us that there is cessation of suffering and fourth tells us that there are ways that lead tot he cessation of suffering. The Buddha called their paths as ‘Ariya-Atthangika-Magga⁸’ or the noble eight fold path’ which consist of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

The aims of and objectives of the social philosophy of Buddhism are peace, amity and justice. In order to preserve and restore social harmony the Buddha prescribed four ‘Sublime States’ or “Brahmaviharas”; namely Metta, (loving kindness, Karuna (compassion), Mudita (sympathetic joy) and Upekkha (impartiality) to control human attitudes. These four stations are still relevant for the preservation and restoration of social harmony.

The Buddha in his Sigalovada Sutta¹⁰ gives a guideline for the lives of the householders. He says that a householder should worship the six quarters—parents is the east, teachers as the south, wife and children as the west, friends and companions as the north, servants and work people as nadir and religions teachers and Brahmanas as the zenith. The Buddha says that every person should perform the duties assigned to him namely supporting his parents in old age, keeping up the lineage and tradition of the family and making himself worthy of the family heritage.

Buddhism came into existence way back in the sixth century B.C. It almost disappeared from India during the Muslim invasion  in the 12th century A.D. The revival of Buddha in India started towards the end of the 18th century when British civil servants started taking interest in this ancient religion. It was Anagarika Dharmpala who generated the curiosity of people about Buddhism once again. Later several other persons like Kripasaran Mahathera, Ananda Kausalyayan, Jagadish Kashyap, Dharmananda Kosambi, Prof. B. M. Barua and Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityan, etc. carried on the endeavour initiated by Anagarika Dharmapala. The 2500 years of Buddhism was celebrated in India with great enthusiasm in the 1956.

The most remarkable event of the celebration was the conversion of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. Dr. Ambedkar was great leader of the oppressed class and he embraced Buddhism with half a million followers¹¹. From there we enter into the Ambedkar era of Indian Buddhism. It may be mentioned in this connection that within a period of five years (1956-1961) the population of Neo-Buddhists rose from 1, 80,823 to 32, 50, 227, a spectacular increase of 1670.70% Neo Buddhism has the following purposes—(a) peaceful co-existence with self respect and self dignity (b) formation of a classless society (c) right to live with dignity (d) right to get knowledge, opportunity to get job etc without any bias or discrimination. (e) Aspiration to attain social and economic freedom rather than spiritual liberation. The Neo-Buddhism has achieved unity among the different castes and sub castes of the society. It has helped them to attain self respect and self dignity. It has inspired them to attain equality, liberty and justice for themselves. And what is equally important is that it has succeeded to bring about the revival of Buddhism in India after a gap of seven and a half centuries.

Forest trees and wild animals are associated with the life of the Buddha. For instance, He was born under a great Sala tree in the garden of Lumbini situated between Kapilavatthu and Devadaha¹². After His ‘Great Renunciation’ and before attaining enlightenment the Buddha wandered in the woods. After that arriving at Urubela near Gaya he sat down under a Pipal tree, where the ground was carpeted with grass. There Sujata offered him rice milk, thinking that he was the tree-God. After defeating the Mara with his army the Buddha spent seven weeks near the Bodhi tree. Then again He preached His first sermon to the Five Disciples in the Deer Park of Isipatana, woodland. And finally the Buddha attained his Mahaparinirbana between the twins Sala trees blooming with flowers out of season on the Full Moon Day of Vaisakah¹³.

Thus we can see that throughout His life the Buddha was intimately connected with forest. His birth, his enlightenment, his first sermon, his passing away all took place under some kind of tree. Besides Buddhist monks went to the forest for the purpose of meditation. So deforestation is sacrilegious in Buddhism. In the Dhammapada, we find the Buddha praising forest life.

“Delightful are the forest were worldling find no joy. There the passionless will rejoice (for) they seek no sensual pleasure¹⁴. Also to many a refuse do men go, —to kills and woods, to  gardens, trees, and shrines when tormented by fear¹⁵”

The Buddha advised his followers to dwell in forests “ O Ananda, when Bhikkhu enters the order he should be encouraged to......... live in a triangular place and animals form a triangular relationship and emphasized that plants and animals should be the objects of human compassion and benevolence” ¹⁶. In modern  age man is becoming increasingly conscious of the dangers of deforestation and maintain a healthy relationship between nature and man. The Buddha seems to have anticipated our concern about the environment nearly two thousand and five hundred years ago

Buddhism in today’s world emphasized rationalist elements in traditional Buddhist teachings and highlights, social reform and internationalism. Along with globalization the flow of Buddhist teachings and practices are not confined in Asia alone but also in other continents. From the very beginning, as we have already seen, Buddhism emphasizes the principle of interdependence between men, animal and plant. Today’s people are suffering from social and ecological crises, poverty of majority of people, depletion of natural resources and pollution. A response to these suffering has engaged Buddhism which transcends all boundaries between the different Buddhist groups in this present age of globalization. Its goal is to achieve mental understanding and co-operation between people belonging to different beliefs and cultures, engaged Buddhism is about involvement of people for solving various social issues ranging from gender equality and euthanasia. Engaged Buddhists in various countries but also in America, Europe and many others. Dalai Lama is a world famous Buddhist who is admired throughout the world for his views on issues such as non violence, human rights and environmental protection.

According Buddhism, compassion can bring peace and happiness in our world Buddhism strikes a balance between spiritual strength and material well being. This can be possible only by the spread of humanism all over the world. Engaged Buddhist apply Buddhist ways for solving the problems they face because of globalization.

The Buddha very curiously anticipates the modern welfare economics. He transcends the narrow and limited approach to nearly the satisfaction of demand. It adds value judgment and applies principle of epics to economics thought. John galtung remarks in this connection “...The doctrine of middle path in Buddhism is a doctrine ceiling and floor. It was not only directed against the accumulation of reaches in Hindu Society but also against misery, including self imposed misery through extreme asceticism’’ He further notes, ‘’Let pupil live Buddhist life, following the respect and there would be neither excessive poverty, nor wealth, no large scale, violence, even less crime.” The Buddha tells us: (a) for householders in this world, poverty is suffering’’ (b) “Woeful in the world are poverty and debt.’’ The Buddha was conscious about the fact that poverty is a social evil and should be eliminated by the principles of welfare economics¹⁷.

Any discussion on the relevance of Buddhism will remain incomplete without a reference to the spirit of rationalism and free thinking inspired by the Buddha himself. The Buddha did not acknowledge the existence of a divine creator and has remained silent on the issue. The Buddha taught his followers not to accept anything blindly, but to verify everything. In this respect also the Buddha anticipated the spirit of scientific enquiry which is very akin to the outlook of our present age.

The discussion may further be lengthened. But for the time we can conclude it with the remark that Buddhism has no god or gods to serve and it does not recognize any supramundane authority or individual dictation. In fact the Buddha was only loyal to facts, reason and harmony. Due to various social complexities people of the world have to be cooperative on a global basis for the common good of mankind in general. The ideal of equality and cooperation are emphasized in Buddhism rather than that of discrimination and isolation. The principle cannot fail to yield good results since it is known to all that much of the present problems of the world are the results of arrogance, greed, distrust and violence.

Notes and References:

1.      Sila is one of the terms that occupy a prominent place in the ethical language of Buddhism. The Pali Text Society Dictionary gives the meanings ‘nature’, ‘Corrector’, ‘Habit’, ‘Behaviour’, to the term or moral practice, good character, Buddhist ethics, code of morality. Weeraratne, W.G. (Editor), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol.-VIII, Si Lanka, Department of Buddhist affairs, Ministry of Religious Affairs, 2007. p-121, see also, Rhys Davids, T.W. and Stede William (ED), Pali-English Dictionary, New Delhi, Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1975,    p. 712.

2.      Panna, it is usually translated as wisdom. Its characteristic mark has been told by rev.   

     Nagasena as ‘Cutting’ and ‘To Show’, (Ovhasanalakkhana Panna). Jha, Lalan Kumar, Man    

     and moral base, New Delhi, Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2009, p. 100.

3.      Dhammacakka Pavattana Sutta or first sermon name given to the first discourse of the

Buddha. It is recorded in the Pali tradition of the Mahavagga and in the sacca-samyutta and abridged version is found in the Gamani-Samyutta and the section of the middle path is inserted in the Dhammadayada Sutta and refer to frequently else were; The count of the noble quest including the gist of this discourse is found in the Ariyapariyesana Sutta. Wareratne, W.G., Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol. IV, Sri Lanka, Government of Srilanka, 1988,  p.  472.

4.      Five disciples or Panca Vaggiya, the name given to the five monks-kondagina or anna

Kondanna, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, Assaji-to whom the Buddha presched his first sermon at Isipatana. Malalasekera, G.P., Dictionary of Pali proper names, Vol. II, New Delhi, Asian educational service, 2003, p. 168.

5.      Yo Cayam Kamesu Kamasukhallikanuyogo hino gammo pothujjanika anariya anatthasamhito, Yo Cayam attakilamathamuyogo dukkha anariyo anatthasamhito. Dhammacakkhapavattana sutta Samyutta nikaya.

6.      Majjima Patipada or middle path or eight fold path, it is also called the middle way by the

      avoiding to extremes e.g. a life given to pleasure and lust (Kamesukamasukhallikanuyogo)

      and a life given to matification (Attakilamathanuyogo) it pasace through the middle therefore

      it is called the middle way. Jha, Lakan Kumar, Op. cit., New Delhi, Bharatiya Book

     Corporation, 2009, p. 120.

7.      Four Noble Truth or (Pali) Ariyasacca refers to the four noble truth (Cattari Ariyasaceani)

Which from the basis of Buddha’s teaching? The first truth is the noble truth of suffering (Dukkhassa Ariyasacca), the second noble truth (Ariyasacca), the truth about the origin of conflict (Dukkha Samudaya), Knowledge of the presence of conflict (Dukkha Sacca) an understanding of the source of its origin (Dukkha Samudaya) still leave unattained the realization of the sasation of the conflict (Dukkha niroda) and this forms the third noble truth the last of the four noble truths, the means towards the end, the path thats lead to the sasation of conflict (Dukkha Nirodagamini Patipada). Malalasekera, G.P. Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol.-II, Sri Lanka, Government of Ceylone, 1966, pp. 84-88.

8.      Ariya Atthangika Magga or the noble eight fold path Samma ditthi, Samma Sankappo Sammi

Vaca Samma Kammanta, Samma Ajiva Samma vayamo, Samma sati, Samma Samadhi. Bhikkhu, Bodhi, The Nobel Eight fold Path., (The way to the end of suffering), Kolkata, Mahabodhi Book Agency, 2012, pp. 1497.

9.      Aronson, Harvey B., Love and sympathy in Theravada Buddhism, New Delhi, Mtilal

Banarshidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2008, pp. 60-73.

10.  Imasmimapana sutte iyam gihehi kattabbam kammanam name, tam akathitam natthi gihe

vinaya namayam suttantu. The Sigalovada sutta of the Dighanikaya (Verse no. 30, p. 39). is the esense of Buddhist way. imparting lessons to the laities on the duties for the family and society. This is the rison that the sutta is very much popular among the Buddhist. Mazumdar, Gayatri Sen, Early Buddhism and laity, Kolkata, Mahabodhi Book Agency, 2009, pp. 97-100 see also. The sutta is an exposition of the whole domestic and social duties of layman, according to the Buddhist point of view, and, as such as, it is famous under the name of Gihi vinaya. Malalalsekera, G.P. Dictionary of Pali proper Names, New Delhi Asian Educational Service, 2003, p.-1134.

11. San, Chan Khoo, Buddhist pilgrimage, Malaysia, 2009, pp. 63-72.

11.  Devadaha, the name was originaly that of a lake, so called either because kings held there

 sports in it (Deva Vuccanti Rajano tesam Mangaladaho), or because it came into existence, without human intervention, hence devine (Sayanjata) va so daho, tasma pi devadaha). Devadaha, Capital of the Koliya Republic was the native village of Prince Siddhartha’s mother Mayadevi as well as his unt Maha Prajapati. It is 35 Kilometer east of Limbini and lies at foot hills of the churemountain just South of the main Himalayan range in the scriptures, it is mentioned is devadaha Sutta, Majjna Nikaya, as the place where the Buddha Censured the Niganthas for their wrong views. Malalasckera, G.P. Dictionary of Pali proper names, New Delhi, Asian Educational Service, 2003. pp. 1111-1112.

12.  Barua, Dipak Kumar, Applied Buddhism : Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern

perspective, Varanasi, Center for Buddhist Studies Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, Banaras Hindu University, 2005, pp. 65-67.

14. Dhammapada, verse-99, Arahanta-Vagga.

15. Ibid, Verse-189, Buddha Vagga.

16. David, Shan, Tree of Life: Buddhism and the protection of nature, Bangkok, Buddhist

      Perception of Nature project, 1987, see also Barua, Dipak Kumar, Applied Buddhism:

      Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern prospective, op. cit., p. 68.

17. Barua, Dipak Kumar, op. cit., pp. 101-102

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Aronson, Harvey B., Love and Sympathy in Theravada Buddhism. New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2008.

Barua, Dipak Kumar, Applied Buddhism : Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from Modern perspectives. Varanasi, Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, Banaras Hindu University, 2005.

Bapat, P. V., 2500 years of Buddhism, New Delhi, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government of India, 2009.

Baten, Sheikh A, Globalization and Anti-Globalization A Critique of Contemporary Capitalism and its counter Trends, Dhaka, Pathak Shamabesh, 2008.

Dhar, Dr. Satchindananda, Transformation and Trend of Buddhism in the 20th Century, Calcutta, Firma KLM (Pvt.) Limited, 1986.

Dharmakosajarn, Professor Dr. Phra, Buddhist Morality, Bangkok, Mahachulalaongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, 2008.

Jha, Lalan Kumar, Man and Moral Base, New Delhi, New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2009.

Kalupahana, David J., Ethics in Early Buddhism, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 2008.

Misra, G. S. P., Development of Buddhist Ethics, New Delhi, Munshiram Manaharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1995.

Naik, Professor C.D., Ambedkar’s Perspective on Buddhism and other Religions, New Delhi, Kalpaz Publications, 2009.

Prasad, Hari Shankar, The Centrality of Ethics in Buddhism Explanatory Essays, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2007.

Ratnapala, Vandasena, Buddhist Sociology, New Delhi, Sri Satguru Publications. Ideological and Oriental Publishers A Division of Indian Books Centre, 1993.

Sangharakshita, Ambedkar and Buddhism, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1986.

Sharma, Dr. S.N., Buddhist Social and Moral Education, New Delhi, Parimal Publications, 1994.

Singh, I. N., Environmental and Buddhism, New Delhi, Prashant Publishing House, 2011.

Yruong, Bhikkhu DUC, Humanism in the Nikaya Literature, New Delhi, Eastern Book Linkers, 2005.

Vashishth, Suraj, Ethics in Buddism, New Delhi, Cyber Tech Publications, 2010.

Winternitz, Maurice, History of Indian Literature, New Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999.

Dorjee, N. Prajna, A Journal of Bodhgaya Temple Management Committee, Bihar Nangzey Dorjee, 2012.

Chopra, J. K. Unique Quintessence of Current National Issues and Topics of Social Relevance, New Delhi, Unique Publishers, 2012.

KIey words:

                                   

Akalika                                          

Ariya-atthaangika magga

Brahmavihara

Jhana

Sila

                                                                                                                           Sumanapal Bhikkhu

                                                (Dr. Subhasis Barua)

                                                Researcher and Independent Scholar

                                                Postal contact : 51K/2 Pandit Dharmadhar Sarani

                                                2^nd Floor (Pottery Road), Kolkata 700 015

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Yogacara Concept of Samsara a study from Theravada standpoint

Sumanapal Bhikkhu

Abstract:

[The idealist philosophy of the Vijnanavadins, like most of the philosophies of India, was closely connected with religious and doctrinal concerns. The Vijnanavadins believed that their views correctly interpreted the doctrines taught in the Mahayana scriptures, the world is nothing but the false ideation of the mind, like a dream. According to all the Buddhist schools, mind or consciousness (Vijnana), as one of the five groups of Dharmas, is destroyed in the final ‘nirvana’ of total extinction – literally ‘Nirupadhisesa nirvana’. The Vijnanavadins also held the view that the mind continues to exist and that Samsara continues to be real, at least as a mental phenomenon, so long as the ‘Nirupadhisesa nirvana’ has not been attained. The only difference between the Hinayanists and the Vijnanavadins on this point was that the Vijnanavadins, unlike the maintained that ‘Samsara’ is purely ideal or ‘mental’ whether this unique concept of  ‘Samsara’ is really a departure from early Buddhist concepts  ‘Samsara’ or not is the, subject of this paper.]

The Yogacara- Vijnanavada Idealism was the last great creative synthesis of Buddhism and its position in that tradition is comparable to that of the Advaita Vedanta in the orthodox Hindu tradition. The origin and development of the Yogacara idealism is an outcome of the fruitful and dynamic ideas associated with the previous schools of Buddhism, especially with the Sautrantika and the Madhyamika. “The Sautrantika prepared the way of the Madhyamika in the one hand and the Yogacara on the other, and is, in a sense, the parting of the ways. The Yogacara is the culmination of Buddhism, arrived at by a gradual reinterpretation and successive reorientation of its central concept of subjectivity. And it is the Sautrantika which makes this reorientation possible, by establishing subjectivity on a logical basis and by unfolding various implications”.¹ Yogacara philosophy is a contribution of the philosophers – Maitreyanatha, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Sthiramati, Dignaga, Dharmakirti and Santaraksita.

The Yogacara School, also known as the “Consciousness-only”² school, is a fourth century outgrowth of Mahayana Buddhism. The Yogacara’s, “by establishing a systematic presentation of mind, a world-view based on their three-nature theory and a path system…” of Buddhist practice, conceived a new philosophical system that “brought Mahayana thought to its full scope and completion.”³Yogacara itself is not a specific meditative practice, but is meant to be applied as a descriptive tool to understand situations of action and intention. The final goal is the complete clarification of consciousness into wisdom. The intention of the school is not to profound a mere philosophical view point, but to develop a perspective which will facilitate enlightenment, the purpose and goal of human life.

Yogacara School was systematically expounded by Maitreyanath and then ably by Asanga. It reached the Zenith at the hands of Vasubandhu, honorably called the “Second Buddha”. The school derived its name from the fact that it emphasized the importance of yoga for the realization of Pure Knowledge (Bodhi) in order to become Buddha by going through all the ten stages (Bhumi) of Bodhisattvahood.

Now, where in liberation lies according to Nagarjuna’s doctrine — this question arises. How the process of liberation presents itself within the phenomenal world? Nagarjuna solved this problem very easily. According to old Sravakayan doctrine, rebirth depends on deeds and the efficacy of the deeds on the defilements— in particular on the mistaken belief in an ‘I’, in a soul. Nagarjuna now says that with the abolition of diversity, resulting from the emptiness of all entities, the bottom falls out of all ideas concerned with the entities of the phenomenal world. With this, the belief in an ‘I’ is also invalidated, and with it the efficacy of deeds vanishes and rebirth comes to an end; the Cognition of the emptiness of all entities is the cause of liberation and provides the impetus form unfolding of the process of liberation.

One of the problems that attracted the attention of the pre-Buddhist thinkers was the origin and development of the world. The keenness of the Indian mind for cosmological speculation is well manifested in the large number of theories put forward during this period. We have seen how speculation starting as far back as the time of the Rgveda came to be systematized and assumed final form in the theories of the Upanisadic thinkers such as Uddalaka.⁴ Most of the thinkers accepted a first Cause such as Being (sat) and explained the world as the final product of evolution, mostly by way of self-causation. Others, who conceived of this First Cause as a personal creator God, considered the world the creation of this omnipotent, being (Brahma). As we have seen, most of these views were known to the Pali Nikayas and Chinese Agamas.

For empirical and logical reasons the Buddha abstained from any discussion of the problem of the origin of the Samsara.⁵ He emphatically declared that “it is not possible to know or determine the first beginning of the cycle of existence of beings who wander therein deluded by ignorance and obsessed by craving”.⁶   Nevertheless, the Buddha found it necessary to give a rational explanation of the problem of evolution, especially to refute the claims of the Brahman caste to superiority which were based on the theory that Brahma had created the Samsara. Thus, the Agganna-suttanta, ⁷ which discusses the evolution of the Samsara process, was preached to explain the evolution of the existing social order, namely, the four castes.⁸ 

Without positing a First Cause such as the Being (sat) of Uddalaka, the Buddha, after stating that the beginning of the cycle of existence (Samsara) is difficult to know or determine, described the Samsara as being subject to a process of dissolution (samvatta, huai) and evolution (vivatta, pien): There comes a time,…when, sooner or later, after the lapse of a very long period of time, this world passes away (or is destroyed). And when this happens, beings (who have reached the end of their life span⁹) are reborn in the world of Rediance,¹⁰  and there they dwell; made of mind, they feed on rapture, are self-luminous, traverse the air, remain in glory, and thus they stay for a long time. There also come a time,…when, sooner or later, this world beings to revolve. (When this happens, beings who have passed away from the world of Rediance, ¹¹ usually come to life as humans. And they too are made of mind, they feed on rapture, are self-luminous, traverse the air, abide in glory, and remain thus for long time.) ¹² 

In the Theravada literature, concept of phenomenal world is quite different. Based on the Theravada Buddhavacana or Pali, Samsara may be divided into the following way:

1.      The philosophical (inorganic) world (utuniyama).

2.      The philosophical (organic) world (bijaniyama).

3.      The sphere of thought or mental life (cittaniyama).

4.      The social and moral sphere (kammaniyama).

5.      The higher spiritual life (dhammaniyama).¹³ 

This classification is, no, doubt, based on the various statements made by the Buddha to explain man and his environment.

Samsara, round of rebirth, transmigration, lit. perpetual wandering or faring on¹⁴ Samsara is a name by which is designated the sea of life ever restlessly heaving up and down, the symbol of this continuous process of ever again and again being born, growing old, suffering and dying. More precisely put, Samsara is the unbroken chain of the fivefold Khandha-conbination, which, constantly changing from moment follow continuously one upon the other through inconceivable periods of time. “Of this Samsara, a single life time constitutes only a tiny and fleeting fraction: hence to be able to comprehend the first noble truth of universal suffering, one must let one’s gaze rest upon the Samsara, upon this frightful chain of rebirths, and not merely upon one single life time, which of course, maybe sometimes less painful”¹⁵

Nagarjuna was the first to create a philosophical system — where he tried to give an exact proof of the unreality of the external world which had been asserted in the Prajnaparamita literature; he developed and defined the decisive fundamental concepts of the Madhyamika School, the unreality of the external world, the relativity of opposing terms and the middle way. Still more important in his uniquely developed concept of an intrinsic nature (Svabhava) and the emptiness of the phenomenal world.

In the Mahayana Samparigarha Sastra, Asanga has furnished the ten essential features of the Yogacara School; tradition records that the head of the Yogacara School, Asanga received teachings from the Bodhisattva Maitreya or Maitreyanatha¹⁶ for the first created new and significant ideas related to Yogacara. Maitreyanatha’s most frequently mentioned works are – The Abhisamayalamkara, The Mahayanasutralamkara and The Madhyantavibhaga.

Asanga’s most striking essential features are:

(A)   The Alaya Vijnana is imminent in all beings.

(B)   Knowledge is of three kinds – illusory, relative and absolute.

(C)   The goal of life is to become one, through Bodhi, with the Dharmakaya (Buddha’s        body of pure existence).

(D)  These are absolutely no difference between Samsara and Nirvana from the ultimate stand point. Nirvana is to be realized here and now by embracing “Sameness” (samatva) and by discarding “Plurality” (Nanatva).

(E)    Reality is Dharmakaya, (or Buddha’s body of Pure Existence) which is pure consciousness and which manifests itself, from the point of view of Samsara, as Nirmanakaya or the Body of becoming, and from point of view of Nirvana as Sambhoga-kaya or the Body of Bliss.

The older Yogacara School produced the most characteristic work – Yogacarabhumisastra (Treatise of the stages of the Application of Yogacara). Tradition names the heads of the school, Maitreya and Asanga, as its authors, but it is probably a work of the school, whose development extended over several generations. The oldest part may be Bodhisattvabhumi where the career of the Bodhisattva is described with inexhaustible imagination in all its details and with bewildering and nearly ‘stupefying elaborateness’, wherein the philosophical completely recedes behind the tropically proliferative scholasticism of liberation; but there are few isolated sections that are also of philosophical significance are, however, inserted. And since they give an excellent ideal of thought from which the development of the Yogacara system began.

From section 1 to 8 of Bodhisattvabhumi – we get data about the divisions of reality it is twofold. With respect to the manner of existence of factors, it is their true existence (bhutata). With respect of the extent of their existence, it is the totality (sarvata) of the factors. In this way true existence and totality are to be considered as reality; the first is the object of the view of all ordinary individuals, the second is the object of rational knowledge.

Further, reality is — divided according to its varieties fourfold – that which is accepted in the ordinary world (Loka); that which is accepted based on rational arguments (yukti); the sphere of knowledge (Jnanagocara) purified of the obstruction of defilements; and the sphere of knowledge purified of the obstruction to what is to be known. Specifically the first reality or truth is the object of the view of all ordinary individuals, thus of the opinion communist; the second is the object of rational knowledge. This is simple and nothing special but the third is the object of knowledge through which the obstruction of defilements is removed, and the fourth is the object of knowledge through which the obstruction to what is to be known is removed. The Yogacarabhuminsastra¹⁷ described the determination. The nature of reality, non-duality   and the middle way and the constitution of the nature of reality, and the proof of the unreality of the phenomenal world respectively¹⁸

As with the Madhyamika School, the sutra literature plays a great role in the Yogacara School. The work “Samadhinirmocana sutra” reflects the course of the general development of the school and its oldest parts fully adhere to the manner of the Prajnaparamita texts, while in the more recent ones the new philosophical thoughts and the scholasticism of liberation of the Yogacara School find expression.

The Bodhisattvabhumi had taught that the phenomenal world is mere conception, but that an ungraspable and inexpressible thing in itself underlies it, and it had cloth this view in the form of the old doctrine of the middle way; the Samadhinirmocana sutra chose another from for this. It distinguished first and foremost between things as they appear to us and things as they really are which are important from the point of view of the doctrine of liberation. Yogacara philosophy is a logical elaboration of the basic epistemological pattern of Buddhism and the discovery of the subjective is the great achievement of Buddhist epistemology. Yogacara considers enlightenment a state of True Suchness or Thusness, meaning that it is the ultimate nature of all things. In reality enlightenment is the only truly Tathata existent state. In the perfect clarity of enlightenment there is total awareness and complete understanding¹⁹.

In enlightenment there is only the singular total truth of unity, which subsumes the “I” of the ego-differentiated self. After enlightenment the mind’s process of seeking outside itself cases, as does the process of sending energy out in the form of attachment and the mind is now contemplative absorbing energy for the benefit of itself Y humanity, like a flower absorbing the rays of the sun. Enlightened mind creates four types of enlightened wisdom which are functions of the Buddhic mind and reflect the transformation of the eight consciousness – the five perceptual, the 6^th, 7^th and 8^th consciousness into fundamental wisdom.

The Buddha is said to have three bodies – Physical  (the body of self mastery) necessary for him to teach humanity the path to enlightenment; the Enjoyment body – a luminescent, subtle, limitless form that the Buddha uses to teach Bodhisattvas, the beings at the find stage prior to enlightenment, and many enjoyment bodies, each having a Pure Land or heaven outside the normal world system, where it is easy to hear and practice the dharma, The wisdom of equality corresponds to this body; the third body in Dharma Body which is real, with two aspects inner mature shared by all Buddha’s – the knowledge body which manifests as omniscient knowledge, perfect wisdom, and the highest spiritual qualities; and the second existent body representing the ultimate nature of reality, thusness and emptiness. With three wisdoms – applied wisdom discursive, fundamental wisdom with insight without distinction – making and is non-discriminative and  subsequently attained wisdom – a pure form of knowledge which eliminate wisdom is all the Buddha’s teaching explain how in enlightenment, a person deal still with relative appearances in the everyday world.

The fundamental doctrine of this school is that all phenomenal existence is fabricated by consciousness, the basis of all activities from birth to attaining enlightenment. Since everything is just an aspect of consciousness, all phenomenal existence is without intrinsic nature. Therefore, the “I” is illusory and there is no self to be found, these is nothing separate from consciousness. The world is our perceptual construct and an analysis of the unenlightened mind will show different levels of perception which are based in store-house of consciousness containing the Karmic seeds of former actions.

Karma is the result of our intentional actions whose consequences remain as seeds or traces in the store-house consciousness; seeds germinate overtime, generate more seeds and once a seed produces its fruit, it is used up; new seeds come to fruition in each moment until the time enlightenment reaches. Consequently in Samsara (the cycle of existence and rebirth that others about the external  sensible world, experience interaction via our streams of mental phenomena and three stages of Karmic process – fist giving rise to delusion  has one root in the sixth – consciousness,  creating Karma involving seed’s planting in the 8^th consciousness and finally when the ongoing cycle of life, death – rebirth  draws the 8^th consciousness back into the six levels of existence, the 3^rd stage of Karma undergoing retribution is the germination of Karmic seeds — We reap what we have sown.

Dharmas the ultimate factors that support existence are basic interdependent patterns within the overall nature of reality, each dharma being a mental – construct with specific process of a stream of momentary events and Dharmas are attachments to an illusory reality; Yogacara posits one hundred Dharmas based on the three nature of reality. The realization that all Dharmas are nothing but mental constructs is an essential step on the path to enlightenment.

In Yogacara theory everything is “mind only” and this consciousness is divided into eight sections — the principal part is the Alaya or store-house-consciousness – the basis of the seven other consciousnesses. The 8^th consciousness is beyond the dualisms of subject and object, or existence and non-existence and is said to have the state of equanimity.  Final freedom from the Samsaric process occurs when all the defiled seeds are replaced by pure seeds created by pure deeds which are the source of motivation towards enlightenment and contained in the Alaya and it has two divisions — the perceiving (The Subject) and the perceived (The Object), the former and the latter are linked to the 7^th and 8^th consciousness and the five perceptual consciousness respectively.

Cognition and perception take place in the 6^th consciousness devoid of four types of delusion – pride of self, self-love, self-delusion and self-conceit and also devoid of laziness, distraction, lack of faith etc. and hence no longer attachment to self, only dharma’s. Distinction making three modes of knowledge is used by the 6^th consciousness and involve subject and object. The subject has three types of knowledge – 1) direct veridical perception giving a truthful picture of reality, e.g. The Orange is forage. 2) Inference is assumptions based on perception: the Orange will taste good and 3) the fallacious knowledge is our dreams, imaginings and hallucinations:  this orange will cure my dandruff.

With reference to the objects of perception, three kinds of states involve:-

1)      The natural state unconditioned by mental causation and corresponds to the perceptual   

 consciousness, e.g. you see a bird.

2)      State of solitary impressions refers to imagined categories in the 6^th consciousness: It is a nice dancing and sweet singing bird.

3)      State of transposed substance are the distortions of false thinking generated by the concept of “self”. The bird likes my good vibes.

The 5^th through 1^st consciousness are the perceptual consciousness comprising the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile senses which arise from the perceived division of the eighth consciousness. Each organ of perception has two parts its physical substances (eyes, ears, nose, tongue and body) the nerves connecting it to the perceived division and its mental component. None of the five perceptual consciousnesses contain the potential for making moral distinctions, so they are of in terminate nature. Fifth consciousness is tactile feeling, perceives through touch or contact, 4^th and 3^rd (or Tongue and Nose) consciousness perceives through tasting and smelling respectively and both also perceives though contact and after the second ground – The first dhyana perception ceases. 2^nd and 1^st consciousness (Ear and Eye consciousness) perceives through hearing and seeing at a distance respectively.

The theory of three natures (also known as three characteristics) is one of the central concepts of Yogacara philosophy: three natures are involved in direct perception and represent all states of entities without exception. In Yogacara theory all objects, internal and external,  are constructs which only exist as part of our awareness, so their nature imaginary, there is no reality, it is just illusion, (1) This imaginary nature accepts the validity of the illusory, i.e. that happiness depends on having a new car/a flower rose or lotus. The imaginary nature believes in the reality of the water in a mirage.  (2) The other-dependent or interdependent nature is the basis from which the imaginary nature arises and the perfected nature appears; this nature is produced by the flow of changing mental phenomena that arises from causes and conditions. These dharma’s real as conditional things, but “because we impose ‘self-existence’ upon our experience of them, we come up with distorted images of things and this causes suffering (Samsara), since our mental constructs do not match reality. The other-dependent nature is mirage itself. (3) The perfected or fulfilled nature is the ultimate nature, the only one that is absolutely real. This nature is devoid of duality and sees the world as “representation only”. Since it is always exactly the same, it is the “thusness” of all. The perfected nature knows it is seeing a mirage.

To see the inter-relationship of our mind processes (i.e. the other-dependent nature) as being without real objective qualifications of their own (imaginary nature) is to be enlightened (perfect nature). Once the false concept of “I” and “Object” id removed, the result is “things-as they-are”, which is nirvana.

There are three kinds of feeling – Experience of Pleasure, Pain and neutral feeling. The distinctions made by the 6^th consciousness cause the manifestation of the six levels of existence (the six destinies): Gods- residing in heaven, Asuras (spirits or titans), Humans, Animals, Hungry ghosts (spirits of suffering) and beings in hell in the three realms:  i) Realm of desire, ii) Realm of form (of the four dharmas) and iii) Formless Realm (of four samadhis). There are nine grounds — the nine bodhisattva grounds are stages, within the three realms, of spiritual attainment, Realm of desire is First ground – the phenomenal world which includes the destinies the six levels of existence and the six desire “heavens”.

The Second ground in the realm of form where the first dhyana is a level of deep awareness, contemplative fore point generation and four dhyanas are meditative techniques which produce a state of mental emptiness (Samadhi). This is the first formal level on the path to enlightenment and is marked by joy, happiness, clear reasoning, and the state of investigation and examination.

In the Third ground the joyful stage of the Arising of samadhi is the second dhyana of joy and examination; at this stage sexual desire has caused.

In the Fourth ground, the stage of wonderful Bliss of Being Apart from joy is the third dhyana of happiness and equanimity, but now without joy. Fifth ground the stage of Renouncing Thought is the fourth dhyana which is the purity of equanimity without pain pleasure, sixth ground is infinite space, Seventh ground is the far reaching ground or infinite consciousness and at this level the 7^th consciousness breaks its attachment to the 8^th consciousness as being the “self” and is transformed into their respective wisdoms. Eighth ground the unmoving ground, here all outflows from the 6^th and 7^th consciousness stop and the wisdom of wonderful contemplation proceeds spontaneously.  Ninth ground is of neither cognition nor non-cognition. In this ground is the samadhi of the extinction of feeling and cognition.

In the process of consciousness, ascend to the wisdom of enlightenment necessitates negating Samsaric reality, while aspiring to the nirvanic ideal. Yogacara recognizes a five stage path to enlightenment.

1. Resources based learned attachments to self and dharma’s.

2. Application of using meditations to enter into the four dhyanas. The process is completed

    when the seeds in 8^th consciousness that ripen into the concepts of subject and object are

    eliminated.

3. Vision is the beginning of the transformation of consciousness into wisdom.

4. Meditational development for fundamental wisdom and subsequent attained wisdom.

5. Perfection is the final stage of completion and one resides there in the state of contemplation

    of pure wisdom and enlightenment.

The Alaya Vijnana is the permanent storehouse of consciousness; it transcends the subject-object duality (Grahyagrahakavisamyukta), is free from birth, existence and is realizable only though pure Reason (Nirabhasa-prajna-gocara). The Pravrttivijnanas may be compared to the waves — various individual vijnanas, due to ignorance moved by the winds in the form of objects dance on Alaya, in the same way as the waves moved by wind dance on the ocean.²⁰

Judging each phenomenal object by the standard of Pratityasamutpada, Asanga has revealed and established that things being born of causes and conditions are necessarily momentary. Change is the law of the world. The object exists in thought only and this momentariness is not the characteristic of Reality, which is not the best affected by these categories. In this school of thought the ultimate reality of the empirical self or ego has been denied. Consciousness pure s admitted as the only reality, having its nature as self-luminous.

Pure consciousness is the Reality and by its inherent power it undergoes modifications — Alaya-vijana (a store-house consciousness), Mano-vijana (individual mental operations), perception of the external objects, i.e. Visaya-vijanapti and behind these three modifications is the permanent background of eternal and unchangeable pure Consciousness (Vijnana or Vijnaptimatra) Vasubandhu is of opinion that Pure Consciousness transcends the dualism of the subject & the object as well as the plurality of phenomena and his system is Absolute Idealism.²¹

With Vasubandhu, the Yogacara school reached its apex, his two works by the title Vijnaptimatratasiddhi (Proof that everything is mere cognizance) one of which is in 20 verses (Vimsatika) the other in 30 (Trimsatika) are considered to be the best summaries of the most important philosophical tenets of the School Yogacara.²² Vasubandhu expresses the mental complex on which the entire phenomenal world rests, consists of three transformations of cognition - i) fundamental cognition (Alayavijnana)

                 ii) Thinking (manas) and

               iii) Cognizance of objects (Visaya-vijnapti).

According to Vasubandhu, with this activity of the mental complex, the appearance of the phenomenal world comes about as follows. By nature, every cognition is a conception (Vikalpa) that conceives something unreal. This “unreal” is the duality of the apprehended and the apprehending. In this, the apprehended and the apprehending are not, as Asanga assumed, embodied by two distinct cognizances’ to which, as bearer, corresponding to the sense organ, a third is added. Instead, everything is united in one cognition which displays the image of an object that is held to exist externally. With this, the apprehended and the apprehending is established.

Also, important is Vasubandhu’s insight that every cognition, as soon as it itself becomes an object, appears in conceived form. What is then cognized is thus not its true nature, but rather a conception like any other. With this, the relationship to the highest reality is clarified. The doctrine that everything is mere cognizance thus does not mean that the sole real entity is cognizance as it appears to us in conceive from. It is, rather, the true nature of cognizance that remains forever inaccessible to our mundane cognizance. And precisely this is the highest reality.

Furthermore, Vasubandhu raises the noteworthy question of the multiplicity of living beings, i.e. the multiplicity of cognizing subjects and their relationship to one another. In his view, the relation of different living beings to one another rests upon the fact that the distinct streams of cognition, all of which are real, are able to causally influence one another in their courses.

With respect to the doctrine of liberation, Vasubandhu as for the process of liberation itself is concerned only with the fundamental philosophical idea – which is created by Maitreyanath and retained by Asanga. But he takes a very different route in the establishment of the unreality of the external world, and Asanga’s way is completely dropped. From the impossibility of the knowable, Vasubandhu infers in the customary way the invalidity of cognition, while returning to the idea that cognition, as it appears to us, is in reality only conception. Once the disciple has turned away from the object and cognition, i.e. from the apprehended and the apprehending, he then abides in mere cognizance, i.e. in its true nature, the highest reality.

In this way the disciple has attained the supramundane, non conceptual knowledge (Nirvikalpakajnana) ²³ which is, at eh same time, the non-perception (anupalambha) ²⁴ of any object in the ordinary sense. With this, the transformation of the basis (asrayapravrtti) ²⁵ takes place, the two fold bondage which consists of the false belief in a self and in factors is destroyed, and with new and unique way the mental complex dissolves. Through this, liberation is attained; the union with the highest reality, the undefiled element (anasrava-dhatu) ²⁶ as Maitreyanatha called it, which at the same time is the body of the doctrine (dharmakaya) of the Buddha.

Hence for Yogacara school, subtraction of Asanga as qualified as psychological idealism, where as sub tradition of Vasubandhu also developed by his disciples Sthiramati and especially Dharmapala is qualified as Vijnanavada the Buddhist phenomenology of consciousness; and subtraction of Dignaga, Dharmakirti (they are disciples of Vasubandhu and Dharmapala respectively) can be qualified as the logico-epistemological branch of the Yogacara School.

 It is important to note that all mentioned Yogacara trends are not purely philosophical but religio- philosophical. All Yogacara discourse takes place within the religious and doctrinal dimension of Buddhism. It is also determined by the fundamental Buddhist problem, that is living being and its liberation from the bondage of Samsara. So let us all take refuge in Yogacara.

Notes and References:-

1.      Chatterjee, Ashok kumar., The Yogacara Idealism, Motilal Baranasidass pub. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2007, pp. 19-20.

2.      http://online.sfsu.edu/rone/Buddhism/Yogacara/basicideas.htm.

3.      http://online.sfsu.edu/rone/Buddhism/Yogacara/basicideas.htm.

4.      CHB, p.322: “Sad ity astitamatram.” See also Sv5.12; Hume, Upanisads, p.278.

5.      Jayattileke, Theory of Knowledge, pp.475f.

6.      S 2.178ff. : “anamataggo’yam…samsaro pubbakoti na pannayati avijjanivarananam sattanam tanhasamyojananam sandhavatam samsaratam” TD 2.485c (Pieh-I Tsa 16.1) see also TD 2.241b (Tsa 34.1). It is interesting to note that the locution anamatagga in the Pali version, which means “inconceivable is the beginning “(ana=negative prefix; mata= past participle of man or mn, “to think”, and agga=agar, “beginning”), occurs in most of the Buddhist Sanskrit texts as anavaragra (see BHSD, p.21). In the Madhyamakakarika(11.1), Nagarjuna says:

“Purva prajnayate kotir nety uvaca mahamunih,

Samsaro’navaragro hi nasyadir napi pascimah.”

Anavargra has generally been translated “without beginning and end” (BHSD, p.21). this is quite clear from Nagarjuna’s use of nasyadir napi pascimh, on the basis of which Jacques May translates anavaragra as “sans debut ni terme” (Candrakirti, Prasannapada Madhyamakavritti, Paris: adrien Maissoneuve, 1959, p.170). But the Agama version seems to imply “without prior limit” when it renders anavaragra, it seems that the former is in keeping with the teaching of early Buddhism in that it implies the difficulty of knowing oe determining the beginning,hence an epistemology rather than an onthological problem. This view carries the support of later Theravada commentators (see SA 2.156: “anamataggo ti animataggo, vassasatam vassasahassam nanena anugantva  pi anamataggo aviditaggo nassa sakka it ova etto va aggam janitum aparicchinnapubbaparakarotiti attho” ). But the latter implies a definite denial of a beginning and is in keeping with the metaphysics of Mahayana. 

7.      Agganna-suttanta, of Digha Nikaya.

8.      This sutra is found in D 3.80ff. : TD 1.36b (Ch’ang 6.1). the Chinese version, unlike the Pali version, specifically states its purpose.

9.      The portion within parentheses is not found in the Chinese version.

10.  The etymology of the term abhassara has presented problem PTSD derives it form abha+svar, “to shine,” and defines it is “shining in splendor” (p.130). The Chinese translators seem to have followed a traditional explanation when they rendered it as kuang yin, “brighy speech” (kuang=abha, yin=svara, “syllable”).

11.  Hence the Chinese version adds: “On account of the exhaustion of merit [=punnakkhaya?] and the termination of the life span{=ayukkhaya?].”

12.  In the Chinese version the portion with in parentheses is given after another passage.

13.  DA 2.432; Dhs A, p. 272;cf. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 119.

14.  Digha Nikaya, PTS, vol. I. p.54; vol. II. P.206.

15.  Nyantiloka, M, Buddhist Dictionary, p.160; Visuddhimagga, p. 544f; Samyutta Nikaya, PTS, vol. II. p. 178f.

16.  Haraprasad Sastri in IHQ, I, 1925, P. 465 ff places Maitreya between 150 and 265 AD.

17.  Buston mentions the Yogacarabhumi as the great work of Asanga. It is five volumes which are briefly described by him, HB, I, pp. 654-56. It appears to be the same as Yogacarabhumisastra. in sec-9-13 and Section 14,

18.  section 15 and 16, and sec- 17 and 19 gives the two proofs of the unreality of the designations, and the two errors and the false and correct view of reality. In correct view of reality —emptiness is correctly comprehended and well discerned through correct insight.

19.  Chatterjee, Ashok Kumar., The Yogacara Idealism, Motilal Baranasidass pub. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2007, p. 29.

20.  Lankavatara Sutra, pp. 186-187.

21.  Frauwallner, Erich, (trn.) Sangpo Gelong Lodro., the philosophy of Buddhism, Motilal Baranasidass pub. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2010, p. 378.

22.  Ibid., pp. 375,479-80.

23.  Ibid., pp. 240-245.

24.  Ibid., pp. 162-381.

25.  Ibid., pp. 320,323,330.

26.  Ibid., p.381. 

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