Sumanapal
Bhikkhu
When we look at the
history of Buddhism we find that in the Mahayana scriptures two concepts are
the most profound, sublime and influential. These are the concepts of
Bodhisattva and Sunyata. According to the ‘Vajrachedika Prajna Paramita Sutra
the ideal of Bodhisattva is, “Never abandon all beings and to see into the
truth that all things are empty.” The Bodhisattva ideal evolved from the
Bodhisattva concept of the Pali Nikaya and gradually spread to a large part of
Asia, particularly China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. This form of Mahayana
Buddhism influenced the people of these countries in almost every fields of
life such as religion, politics, economics, sociology, psychology and culture.
It has been rightly pointed out by Edward Conze that the two most noteworthy
contributions of the Mahayana doctrine are the creation of the Bodhisattva
ideal and the elaboration of the doctrine of Emptiness.
According to Har Dayal,
the Bodhisattva doctrine originated probably in the 2nd century B.C. He says,”
We may regard the second century B.C. as the chronological starting point for
the development of the Bodhisattva.” According to N. Dutta it was around 2nd
or 1st century B.C.[1]
Most religions teach us
that the communication between the followers and God or Creator is based on an
absolute belief in Him. If they have God’s favour they will find luck and
happiness in the present and future. But the Buddha differed from this view. He
is with the opinion that morality, concentration and purification of mind are
necessary for ultimate liberation. The Buddha also exhorted people to stay away
from evil not because of the fear of punishment from God but from a sincere wish
for the welfare of all beings. He urged people to cultivate good qualities and
develop the powers inherent within us with self confidence.
Santideva was a famous
Buddhist philosopher saint. Though his life cannot be actually dated from
references to him as found in historically datable sources we can infer that he
lived in India during the last part of the seventh century and the first part
of the eighth century. He followed the Mahayana tradition and has attained
everlasting fame by composing Bodhicharayavatara and the Siksasamuccaya. These
two books as a whole give a splendid account of Indian Mahayana thought on the
theory and conduct of a Bodhisattva. The name of Santideva is associated above
all with two extant texts the Bodhicaryavatara and the Sikshasamuchaya.
The Bodhicaryavatara
(Introduction to the conduct of a Bodhisattva) in its most widely known form is
a work of just over 900 verses[2].
Tibetan legends suggest that the text was originally recited orally, as do the
texts own literary features. Although it has been translated into Tibetan
multiple times and revered throughout Tibetan Buddhist tradition, it was
composed and redacted in Sanskrit. Its Sanskrit is relatively close to Paninian
Standards of grammar, with a Buddhist vocabulary. It is appreciated widely both
for literary beauty and profound thought. Its ten chapters lead their reader
through the path of being a Bodhisattva- a future Buddha and therefore a being
on the way to perfection, according to the Mahayana tradition. It begins with
praise for Bodhicitta, the state of mind that makes one an aspiring Bodhisattva
and ends with a ritual direction (parinamana) of good karma, by which the
Bodhisattva attempts to benefit those around him. The chapters in between deal
with various topics, but they focus especially on developing the six
perfections of virtue of a Bodhisattva: giving or generosity (dana), properly
restrained conduct (sila), patient endurance (ksanti), heroic strength (virya),
meditative concentration (dhyana) and metaphysical insight (Prajna). The last
four receive their own chapter in the end. According to Michael Sweet (1996, 245)
it is ‘the most important source for the entire Tibetan literary genre of blo sbyong (mental purification) and
according to (Williams, 1995), the present Dalai Lama it is the highest
inspiration for his ideals and practices. Tibetan commentators have written
many commentaries on the text over the years and several of these are now
available in English translation.
Santideva’s degree of
influence is much harder to ascertain, given the lack of historical evidence.
The Bodhicaryavatara especially the ninth chapter is quoted in an anthology
called the Subhasitasamgraha.
The Indian reception of
Santideva is most significant because it included Prajnakarmati’s commentary on
the Bodhicaryavatara which was highly influenced for the Tibetans who followed
and which (as mentioned) quotes heavily from the Sikshasamuchaya (Crosby and
Skilton 1995).
The Bodhicaryavatara
has also been widely translated, studied and admired in the West. Luiz Gomez
(1999, 262-263) even suggests that it is now the third most frequently
translated text of Indian Buddhism (the first two being Dhammapada and Heart
Sutra). In a recent introductory text we find that the Bodhicaryavatara has
been treated as one of the classic readings in ethics like Plato’s Gorgias and
Mill’s Utilitarianism.
Bodhisattva provides
the central theme for the Bodhicaryavatara. The literal meaning of the word
Bodhisattva is a being trying to reach the final goal of Bodhi (awakening or
enlightenment) by which one becomes a Buddha (literally Awakened One). The root
for both the words Bodhi and Buddha is budh
or awaken. The title Bodhicharyavatara is the short form of
Bodhisattvacharyavatara or introduction to the conduct of a Bodhisattva. The
text is often referred to by Tibetan commentaries and histories by its latter
name. Introduction to the conduct of a Bodhisattva fairly summarizes the subject
matter of the text. The term prthajana is introduced by Santideva to describe
non Bodhisattvas or the common man. Due to the influence of Bodhicaryavatara
the figure of Santideva has assumed a great influence in the history of
Buddhism.
Santideava was a great
scholar and poet. Before composing the Bodhicaryavatara, he probably had
composed Siksasamuccaya which summarized over 100 sutras to explain key moral
concepts and the nature of the Bodhisattva path. The Bodhicharyavatara was a
lyrical poem of 1000 lines that is frequently regarded as the single best
summary of the theory and practice of Mahayana philosophy. However the exact
number of works composed by him is unknown to us. Bodhicharyavatara is the
essence of entire Mahayana literature which illustrates the poetic, philosophic
spiritual and religious sides of Santideva. We know from Bu-ston’s book
‘History of Buddhism in India and Tibet’ that there were nearly 100
commentaries on Bodhicharyavatara in India and but we have Tibetan versions
only for eight of them. His Highness Dalai Lama also frequently uses quotations
from the Bodhicharyavatara in his speech.
. Even today the Bodhicharyavatara is studied by people with great
enthusiasm in the Buddhist countries.
Santideva’s Bodhicharyavatara
is divided into ten chapters and they contain over nine hundred stanzas in
Sanskrit3. A commentary of the
Bodhicharyavatara up to stanza 9 was composed by Prajnakarmati (P.M.) and the
work came to be known as Panjika.
In all probability,
Santideva was a student of Jayadeva who succeeded Dharmapala at Nalanda University.
He was a follower of Prasangika system of Madhyamika philosophy Madhyamaka. The
Bodhicharyavatara composed by him is world classic. He
was the son of King Kalyanavarman who ruled in Saurastra in South India. It is
believed that in his previous lives he met the Buddha and established in
himself the root of liberation. When he was young he studied sciences and
martial arts. He respected his teachers very much and was greatly compassionate
to suffering people. When he grew up he was chosen as the heir to the throne. On
the night before his enthronement, he dreamt of Manjusri sitting on the throne
and telling him not to sit on the throne as it was his seat. And as advised by
his mother he left the palace and went to the forest of Banga. After arriving
at Banga, Santideva met a girl who saved him from drinking poisoned water and
sent him to his teacher who was a great lama. From him he received initiation
and instructions on meditation. After twelve years of practice he attained pure
vision that enabled him to perceive Manjushree and then as advised by his
preceptor he went the city to preach what he had learnt. Santideva became an
assistant to the king. When dissatisfied subjects threatened the king he came
to his aid and the king was converted to Buddhism. When the Vedic master Sankarananda
challenged Buddhists, Santideva was chosen to represent them and he won the
debate. For this reason Buddhism flourished.
After his arrival at Nalanda, Santideva
received ordination from Jinadeva. There he received the title Santideva or the
‘god of peace’. By practising Samadhi he had gained limitless mental power. He
studied the Tripitaka and composed three major texts such as ‘Compendium of All
Precepts’, ‘Compendium of All Sutras” and ‘Engaging in the Conduct of the
Bodhisattvas’. Ordinary people thought that he was only eating, sleeping and
walking. So he earned the nickname Busuku. The monks attempted to force him out
of the monastery and made him recite and give a public lecture. Santideva
mounted the large throne that was built by them. Everyone proclaimed him as a
noble being of great intelligence.
His great teachings
were written down by the hearers at Nalanda. As it had three versions, a
delegation was sent to Sridaksina in the south where he lived to determine
which one was correct. There Santideva said that the text with 1000 verses was
the authentic one.
In the west of Magadha,
Santideva met 500 Pasandakas who were desperate to have food due to famine. It
is said that he fed all of them with one bowl of rice and converted them to
Buddhism. Then he fed thousands of beggars during a famine and gave them happiness by teaching the Dhamma.
We find in the Encyclopaedia
of Religion1that The Sanskrit term Bodhisattvacarya means Bodhisattva path.
There are two ways for the Bodhisattvas to cultivate Dhamma namely, through
belief and understanding of the twelve causes and conditions, the middle way,
or through belief and understanding of the six Perfections or Paramitas.
The Bodhisattva path
begins with obeisance and worship of the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. The
confession of sins to the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas is also required. After
confessing his sins the Bodhisattva seeks help and protection from them. In
Mahayana confession is the means for absolving sins and the confessor entreats
the Buddhas to cleanse them with the water of mercy. According to Tibetan and Indian
cultural tradition there are three qualities of an enlightened being and nine
characteristics of noble ones. These three qualities are wisdom, compassion and
spiritual power. These qualities gradually develop in the Bodhisattva path and
ultimately in attaining Buddhahood. According to the Mahayana Buddhist doctrine
the nine characteristics of the noble one are the following: study,
contemplation, meditation, teaching, debate, composition, learning purity, and
nobility. The first three qualities belong to the foundational level; the
second three qualities are teaching, debate and composition. This represents
the path level. The final level is the result which is learning, purity and
nobility. In the Tibetan ‘Rnam Thar’4 the life story of Santideva is
recounted in such a way that each of these nine qualities becomes evident.
There we find a clear description of the preliminary stages of study,
contemplation and meditation.
In Sanskrit Buddhist literature confession of
sin is known as papadesana and this was said to be as one of the necessary
preconditions for the awakening of the thought of Enlightenment. Though at this
point of time the spiritual faculty of the would be Bodhisattva in not yet
purified and developed up to the standard required for the aspiration and do
not result in the thought of Enlightenment, they are fully ripe for the
attainment of the status of Bodhisattva. According to Mati Panchen, the
Bodhisattva should,” …adopt the four white Dhammas. They are, do not speak lies
even at the cost of one’s own life, regard all Bodhisattvas as spiritual
masters, generate benevolent towards all sentient beings, and place other
beings in the path of the Mahayana. At the same time, the Bodhisattva has to
relinquish the following black Dhammas, such as deceiving one’s lama and those
worthy of respect, causing others to regret that which is not regrettable,
angrily criticizing Bodhisattvas, and adopting cunning and deception to others.
Mati Panchen also says that in case of declining enlightenment the following
steps should be taken. If enlightenment thought declines due to giving up the
wish to attain enlightenment it should be restored by performing the rituals
again and carefully guarding the thoughts of enlightenment.
After the demise of the
Buddha, Hinayana and Mahayana developed from early Buddhism. Hinayana was the
conservative of the two which tried to retain the orthodox teachings and
practices in their pure forms. According to it there is only one Buddha who is
the historical founder of Buddhism and the highest aim of one’s life is to
attain Arahanthood that is to become a good disciple of the Budddha through
one’s own effort. The Hinayanists believe that the Pali canons are the main
scriptures. Mahayana Buddhism is a later development of Buddhism which gives a
new interpretation of the teachings of the Buddha. According to Mahayana
teachings Pali canons are not the only scriptural source, Buddhism has many new
scriptures written in Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan etc. They also believe that
there was not only one Buddha but many. The main purpose of life is not merely
to attain salvation for oneself but to help others to attain salvation.
Though the Buddha expressed
his religious doctrine in terms of Dependent Origination or and Middle Path,
several centuries later a group of Mahayana texts such as the Vajrachedika Prajnaparamita
Sutra and the Hridaya Sutra very forcefully expressed the doctrine of sunyata
or emptiness. .The Hridaya Sutra is often bound up with the Vajracchedika Sutra
and it rivals its companion in popularity. But they are so closely allied both internally
and externally that the question of rivalry does not arise at all. The Hridaya Sutra
has two recensions, along and a short one. In the longer recension in the
beginning and end we find an account of the circumstances of its preaching. In
this Sutra we find a dialogue between Bodhisattva Avolokiteshvara and
Sariputra, the great disciple of the Buddha though only the Bodhisattva
actually speaks.
It is relevant to
compare and contrast Santidev’s Bodhicharyavatara with Chandrakirti’s Madhyamakavaatara
(MA). A great amount of insight can be obtained about the doctrine of sunyata
or emptiness and about the Bodhisattvapath if these two texts are read side by
side. In Chandrakirti we find a simpler introduction but Santideva delves
deeper into the issue. In both these works we find a refutation of the
arguments put forward by the opposing philosophical schools. The MA and the
Bodhicharyavatara illuminate one another and there is a similarity between
their knowledge base. Both Santideva and Chandrakirti use Madhyamika philosophy
to explain the path of Bodhisattva and the nature of reality. But the
difference is that while Chandrakirt discusses the issue in the light of the
Ten Bhumis, Santideva does the same in the light of the Six Paramitas. But both
of them believe that the Bodhisattva Path has its beginning in the development
of enlightenment thought. It means the desire for enlightenment with a
benevolent heart or in other words with the desire to serve every sentient
being. After enlightenment though is generated the Bodhisattva begins his journey
with the help of practising the Six Paramitas or Perfections namely giving,
morality, patience, diligence, meditation and wisdom. By way of practicing the
Paramitas one attains the stages named Ten Bhumis that supply Chandrakirti with
the framework for discussing the Bodhisattva Path. The Bhumis are known as
Extreme Joy, Stainlessness, Producing Light, Radiating Light, Difficult to
Exorcise, Manifesting, Gone Far, Immovable, Exalted Intellect and Cloud of Dhamma. By practising
each of these Paramitas Bodhisattva comes closer to the attainment of ultimate
knowledge. Both Santideva and Chandrakirti believe that an understanding of
emptiness is needed to be able to gain complete enlightenment.5
By
emptiness we mean that all persons and phenomena do not have an inherent
existence. It is essential to understand and experience emptiness if one wishes
to attain complete enlightenment. After the dedication we find in the
Bodhicharyavatara an exhaustive discussion on enlightenment thought that is
also known as bodhichitta. Santideva frames his entire text on the generation
and application of enlightenment thought. He devotes the first three chapters
of Bodhicharyavatara for the discussion of the motivation of enlightenment thought,
and discusses the application of this thought in chapters 4 to 9. For Santideva
there are two types of Enlightened Thought namely relative and ultimate.
Relative Enlightenment thought can be further divided into two types, e.g.
wishing and entering:6
“In summary this
Enlightenment thought
Should be
understood of two types:
The mind that
wishes to become enlightened
And the mind
that actually engages in Enlightenment.”
(Bodhicaryavatara, 5, 1.15)
Enlightenment is
attained not for narrow selfish gain but for the benefit of all sentient
beings. The undertaking of Bodhisattva path means entering enlightenment
thought. It is the experimental understanding of emptiness and this brings
happiness to oneself and others by dispelling sins and makes one a Bodhisattva.
The engagement on the
Bodhisattva path formally starts with taking of the Bodhisattva vow that
generates enlightenment thought and commits one to enter enlightenment thought
until that is achieved. When one takes the oath of helping other beings there
is a greater chance that one would follow the path with perseverance. According
to Santideva, Bodhisattva vow is the official generation of Bodhichitta.
The Six Perfections are the means that describe
the method with the help of which one engages the Bodhisattva Path. In Sanskrit
Perfection means Paramitas and in Tibetan they are called ‘Paroduchinba.” The
Sanskrit and the Tibetan words both mean ‘gone to the other shore.” With the
help of the six Perfections one we cross the sea of samsara and attain the
shore of nirvana. The Six Perfections are the following Giving, Morality,
Patience, Diligence, Meditation, and Wisdom.
The perfection of each
individual Paramita can be achieved. A Perfected Paramita has the following
characteristics:
1. Enlightened
thought is its motivation.
2. It is vast because its aim is to help all
sentient beings.
3. It
is the source of happiness to people.
4. It
has wisdom that goes beyond the range of subject, object and action.
5. Its aim is great enlightenment.
6. It
is free from the great obstructions of defilement and cognition.
Now we will discuss the
Six Paramitas in detail. It is important to note that each perfection has both
a definition and an opposite.
Giving:
Instead of
devoting an entire chapter to the Paramita of Giving Santideva addresses this
throughout the Bodhicaryavatara. The opposite of Giving or dana is stinginess. Giving or offering can be of three types:
mental offerings, offering of one’s own body and Dharma teachings. As the
giving of material objects is likely to become perverted by defilements like
greed mental offerings are considered to be superior to material offerings.
Morality:
According
to Santideva morality is of three types: the cessation of all non virtues,
performance of the ten virtues, and working for the benefits of all sentient
beings. Santideva discusses the Perfection of morality in two chapters namely
in chapters 4 and 5. Chapter 4 is about
heedfulness that means always holding the Bodhisattva precepts in one’s mind.
Chapter 5 deals with guarding alertness. This involves the performance of the
ten virtues such as stopping killing, stopping stealing, stopping sexual misconduct,
stopping lying, stopping slander, stopping harsh words, stopping idle talk, and
stopping wrong views. According to Santideva guarding alertness helps one in
dispelling fear and in becoming free from the heels of the mind.
Patience:
The sixth chapter
of Bodhicaryavatara deals with the Perfection of Patience. Santideva considers
Patience as the greatest of all virtues and this helps us to retain our mental
composure under extreme provocation. Patience
is of three types namely disregarding harm, accepting suffering voluntarily,
the thinking of the certainty of the Dharma. Anger is the opposite of Patience
and in order to eradicate anger patience has to be perfected.
Diligence:
The Perfection
of Diligence has been dealt with in the seventh chapter of the Bodhicaryavatara.
A truly diligent person does not get tired on his way to enlightenment and
feels happy in maintaining the Bodhisattva precepts. Laziness or not striving
for enlightenment is the opposite of diligence.
Meditation:
The Perfection of Mediation has been discussed
in chapter 7 of Bodhicaryavatara along with the Perfection of Meditation.
Meditation directs our consciousness inwardly and according to Santideva its
purpose is to get rid of mental defilements and obstructions. Distraction is
the opposite of Meditation.
Wisdom:
The
ninth chapter of the Bodhicaryavatara discusses Wisdom. This is the longest
chapter of the book since it discusses the ultimate nature of reality.
According to the Buddha in order to apprehend the nature of reality the
perfection of wisdom has to be attained. Madhyamika philosophy tells us that
since all things are interdependent they are devoid of any intrinsic existence.
The
title of the ninth chapter of Bodhicaryavatara is “The Perfection of Wisdom.”
In this chapter Santideva deals with emptiness for the development of wisdom.
Here Santideva establishes his view by refuting those of the non Buddhists as
well as those of the Sautantrika, Vaibhasika and the Mind only Buddhist
Schools. At the outset Santideva supplies the reasons for developing wisdom.
Santideva says that the ability to understand emptiness is synonymous with
wisdom. It means the understanding which helps us to realize that all persons
and phenomena do not have any inherent self. According to Madhyamika philosophy
anything must satisfy three requirements in order to qualify as having inherent
existence. Firstly, it must have independence, secondly it must have substance
(or material), and finally it must have changelessness or permanence.
According
to Santideva there are two levels of truth and they are relative truth and
ultimate truth. The relative level of truth concerns the observable and mundane
world of visible people and objects. The ultimate level of truth, on the other
hand, is beyond
the
level of intellect but can be directly experienced by means of meditation. In
order to become fully enlightened we have to realize first that all phenomena
are empty or without selfhood. The awareness of emptiness gives us freedom from
all material desires and clinging. Santideva also says that we should study
emptiness urgently and out of compassion for all sentient beings.
Notes and References:
[1]. Dutta, N, Mahayana Buddhism,
Sri Satguru Publication, New Delhi, 1978, p.1. see also, Bhikkhuni Gioi Hiong,
Bodhisattva and Sunyata, Eastern Book Linkers, New Delhi,2005, p. 125.
2.
C. Upender Rao, chodrungma
Kunga Chodron, Michelle L.Dexter, Sanntideva and Bodhicaryavatara, Eastern Book Linkers, New Delhi,2005, p.53.
3. The text of Bo. Was first
published in the Russian oriental journal Japiski, IV, 1889 by Minayef, by
which scholars came to know about the greatness of this text and gradually Bo.
Was translated into other European languages. L.D. Barnett ha translated into
English in 1909 then it was translated into French twice from Paris; first by
Poussin in 1912 and then by Lo Finot in 1920. R. Schmidts german translation
appeared im 1923 from Paderbom, In Italian it was translated by G. Tucci and
the same was published in 1925 from Torino. Sri Dharmananda Kosambi an Indian
scholar of Buddhist studies has translated in into Gujrati and Marathi. Ibid.
4. A commentary on Santideva’s
Engaging in the conduct of the Bodhisattvas Written by Sazang Mati Panchen
known as An Extremely Clear Illumination of the Meaning of the Text. Translated
from the Tibetan by Venarable Lama Kalsang Gyaltsen and Chodrung –ma-Kunga
Chodron. Tsechen Kunchab Ling Publications, Walden NY, 2006, see also Ibid., p.
20.
5. C. Upender Rao, chodrungma
Kunga Chodron, Michelle L.Dexter, Sanntideva and Bodhicaryavatara,
Eastern Book Linkers, New
Delhi,2005, p.152.
6. C. Upender Rao, chodrungma
Kunga Chodron, Michelle L.Dexter, Sanntideva and Bodhicaryavatara, Eastern Book Linkers, New Delhi,2005, p.153.
Bibliography:
1. Albany; Francis
Brassard, The Concept of Bodhicitta in
Santideva's Bodhicaryāvatāra,
McGill University, 1997.
2.
Bhikkhuni
Gioi Huong, Bodhisattva and Sunyata, Eastern Book Linkers, New
Delhi,
2005.
3.
Banerji, R. D., The Origin of the Bengali Script,
University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1919.
4. Barnett,
L. D., The path of light: Rendered from the `Bodhi-charyāvatāra' of Śānti-deva:
A manual of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Wisdom of the
East Series, John Murray, London.
1947.
5. Batchelor, Stephen, A Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life, Library of
Tibetan
Works and Archives, Dharamsala. 1979.
6. Bhaṭṭācārya,
Vidhuśekhara, Bodhicaryāvatāra, vol. 1580 of Bibliotheca Indica, The
Asiatic
Society, Calcutta. 1960.
7.
Brassard,
Francis, The Concept of Bodhicitta in
Śāntideva’s Bodhicaryāvatāra, State University of New York Press, 2000.
8. Brunhölzl, Karl,
The Center of the Sunlit Sky:
Madhyamaka in the Kagyü Tradition, including a translation of Pawo
Rinpoche's commentary on the knowledge section of Śāntideva's The entrance to the Bodhisattva's way of
life (Bodhicaryāvatāra),
Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca. 2004.
9. C. Upendar Rao, Chordung-ma Kunga Chordon
and Michelle L. Dexter, (Ed.), Santideva
and Bodhicharyavatara, Eastern Book
Linkers, New Delhi,2005.
9.
Chimpa, Lama and Alaka Chattopadhyaya, Tāranātha’s History of Buddhism in India,
Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 1997.
10.
Chodron, Pema, No Time to Lose: A Timely Guide
to the Way of the Bodhisattva,
Shambhala Publications, Boston. 2005.
11.
Crosby,
Kate and Andrew Skilton, The Bodhicaryāvatāra, Oxford University Press,
Oxford. 1996.
12. Divyavajra, V., Ācārya Śāntidevayā
Bodhicaryāvatāra: Prajñākaramatiyāgu
Pañjikā sahita. Bhāṣāhīkūma Divyavajra
Vajrācārya, Newari translation of the BCA,
Bodhi Prakāśana Kendra, Yala
(Lalitapura), Nepal. 1986.
13. Hara
Prasad Śāstri, A Descriptive Catalogue
of Sanscrit Manuscripts in the
Government collection under the care of The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Baptist
Mission
Press, Calcutta. 1917.
14. Matics, Marion Leonidas., Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The
Bodhicaryāvatāra
of the Buddhist poet Śāntideva, Allen & Unwin, London, 1971, (from
Ph.D.Thesis, Columbia University, 1960).
15. Matsunami, S., A Catalogue of the Sanskrit
Manuscripts in the Tokyo University
Libary (Toky-o Daigaku Toshokan shozo
Bonbun shahon mokuroku), Suzuki Research
Foundation, Tokyo. 1965.
16. Melis, Nicole Martínez., “The
Bodhicaryavatara: A Buddhist treatise translated
Into Western languages”, in Branchadell
et al., Less Translated Languages,
John
Benjamins, Amsterdam-Philadelphia, 2005.
17. Mitra, Rājendralāla., The Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal, Sanskrit
Pustak Bhandar, Calcutta. 1971.
18. Mukhopādhyāya., Bodhicaryāvatāra, Bengali translation of BCA, Śāntiketan. 1962.
19. Sangharakshita, Bhikshu., The endlessly
fascinating cry: an exploration of the
Bodhicaryāvatāra, Shambhala, Berkeley. 1978.
20. Śāstri, Śānti Bhikṣu., Acarya Santideva ka
Bodhicaryavatara. Anuvadaka
Santibhikshusastri, Buddhavihara,
Lakhanau (Luknow). 1955.
21. Sharma, Parmananda., Śāntideva
Bodhicaryāvatāra: Original Sanskrit Text with
English Translation and Exposition Based
on Prajkaramati's Pañjikā, Aditya Prakashan,
New Delhi. 1990.
22. Shastri, Dwarika Das., Bodhicaryāvatāra of
Ārya Śāntideva with the Commentary
Pañjikā of Shri Prajñākaramati &
Hindi Translation, Bauddha Bharati, Varanasi. 1988.
23.
Shastri, Yajneshwar Sadashiv., Acarya
Santideva ka Bodhicaryavatara. Anuvadaka
Santibhikshusastri, Hindi
translation of BCA, Buddhavihara, Luknow. 1955.
24. Williams, Paul, Studies in the Philosophy of
the Bodhicaryavatara Altruism and reality,
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2000.
