Tuesday, March 21, 2017

Santideva and Bodhicharyavatara: A Close Reading

   


Sumanapal Bhikkhu

When we look at the history of Buddhism we find that in the Mahayana scriptures two concepts are the most profound, sublime and influential. These are the concepts of Bodhisattva and Sunyata. According to the ‘Vajrachedika Prajna Paramita Sutra the ideal of Bodhisattva is, “Never abandon all beings and to see into the truth that all things are empty.” The Bodhisattva ideal evolved from the Bodhisattva concept of the Pali Nikaya and gradually spread to a large part of Asia, particularly China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. This form of Mahayana Buddhism influenced the people of these countries in almost every fields of life such as religion, politics, economics, sociology, psychology and culture. It has been rightly pointed out by Edward Conze that the two most noteworthy contributions of the Mahayana doctrine are the creation of the Bodhisattva ideal and the elaboration of the doctrine of Emptiness.
According to Har Dayal, the Bodhisattva doctrine originated probably in the 2nd century B.C. He says,” We may regard the second century B.C. as the chronological starting point for the development of the Bodhisattva.” According to N. Dutta it was around 2nd or 1st century B.C.[1]
Most religions teach us that the communication between the followers and God or Creator is based on an absolute belief in Him. If they have God’s favour they will find luck and happiness in the present and future. But the Buddha differed from this view. He is with the opinion that morality, concentration and purification of mind are necessary for ultimate liberation. The Buddha also exhorted people to stay away from evil not because of the fear of punishment from God but from a sincere wish for the welfare of all beings. He urged people to cultivate good qualities and develop the powers inherent within us with self confidence.
Santideva was a famous Buddhist philosopher saint. Though his life cannot be actually dated from references to him as found in historically datable sources we can infer that he lived in India during the last part of the seventh century and the first part of the eighth century. He followed the Mahayana tradition and has attained everlasting fame by composing Bodhicharayavatara and the Siksasamuccaya. These two books as a whole give a splendid account of Indian Mahayana thought on the theory and conduct of a Bodhisattva. The name of Santideva is associated above all with two extant texts the Bodhicaryavatara and the Sikshasamuchaya.
The Bodhicaryavatara (Introduction to the conduct of a Bodhisattva) in its most widely known form is a work of just over 900 verses[2]. Tibetan legends suggest that the text was originally recited orally, as do the texts own literary features. Although it has been translated into Tibetan multiple times and revered throughout Tibetan Buddhist tradition, it was composed and redacted in Sanskrit. Its Sanskrit is relatively close to Paninian Standards of grammar, with a Buddhist vocabulary. It is appreciated widely both for literary beauty and profound thought. Its ten chapters lead their reader through the path of being a Bodhisattva- a future Buddha and therefore a being on the way to perfection, according to the Mahayana tradition. It begins with praise for Bodhicitta, the state of mind that makes one an aspiring Bodhisattva and ends with a ritual direction (parinamana) of good karma, by which the Bodhisattva attempts to benefit those around him. The chapters in between deal with various topics, but they focus especially on developing the six perfections of virtue of a Bodhisattva: giving or generosity (dana), properly restrained conduct (sila), patient endurance (ksanti), heroic strength (virya), meditative concentration (dhyana) and metaphysical insight (Prajna). The last four receive their own chapter in the end. According to Michael Sweet (1996, 245) it is ‘the most important source for the entire Tibetan literary genre of blo sbyong (mental purification) and according to (Williams, 1995), the present Dalai Lama it is the highest inspiration for his ideals and practices. Tibetan commentators have written many commentaries on the text over the years and several of these are now available in English translation.
Santideva’s degree of influence is much harder to ascertain, given the lack of historical evidence. The Bodhicaryavatara especially the ninth chapter is quoted in an anthology called the Subhasitasamgraha.
The Indian reception of Santideva is most significant because it included Prajnakarmati’s commentary on the Bodhicaryavatara which was highly influenced for the Tibetans who followed and which (as mentioned) quotes heavily from the Sikshasamuchaya (Crosby and Skilton 1995).
The Bodhicaryavatara has also been widely translated, studied and admired in the West. Luiz Gomez (1999, 262-263) even suggests that it is now the third most frequently translated text of Indian Buddhism (the first two being Dhammapada and Heart Sutra). In a recent introductory text we find that the Bodhicaryavatara has been treated as one of the classic readings in ethics like Plato’s Gorgias and Mill’s Utilitarianism.
Bodhisattva provides the central theme for the Bodhicaryavatara. The literal meaning of the word Bodhisattva is a being trying to reach the final goal of Bodhi (awakening or enlightenment) by which one becomes a Buddha (literally Awakened One). The root for both the words Bodhi and Buddha is budh or awaken. The title Bodhicharyavatara is the short form of Bodhisattvacharyavatara or introduction to the conduct of a Bodhisattva. The text is often referred to by Tibetan commentaries and histories by its latter name. Introduction to the conduct of a Bodhisattva fairly summarizes the subject matter of the text. The term prthajana is introduced by Santideva to describe non Bodhisattvas or the common man. Due to the influence of Bodhicaryavatara the figure of Santideva has assumed a great influence in the history of Buddhism.          
Santideava was a great scholar and poet. Before composing the Bodhicaryavatara, he probably had composed Siksasamuccaya which summarized over 100 sutras to explain key moral concepts and the nature of the Bodhisattva path. The Bodhicharyavatara was a lyrical poem of 1000 lines that is frequently regarded as the single best summary of the theory and practice of Mahayana philosophy. However the exact number of works composed by him is unknown to us. Bodhicharyavatara is the essence of entire Mahayana literature which illustrates the poetic, philosophic spiritual and religious sides of Santideva. We know from Bu-ston’s book ‘History of Buddhism in India and Tibet’ that there were nearly 100 commentaries on Bodhicharyavatara in India and but we have Tibetan versions only for eight of them. His Highness Dalai Lama also frequently uses quotations from the Bodhicharyavatara in his speech.  . Even today the Bodhicharyavatara is studied by people with great enthusiasm in the Buddhist countries.
Santideva’s Bodhicharyavatara is divided into ten chapters and they contain over nine hundred stanzas in Sanskrit3. A commentary of the Bodhicharyavatara up to stanza 9 was composed by Prajnakarmati (P.M.) and the work came to be known as Panjika. 
In all probability, Santideva was a student of Jayadeva who succeeded Dharmapala at Nalanda University. He was a follower of Prasangika system of Madhyamika philosophy Madhyamaka. The Bodhicharyavatara composed by him is world classic.    He was the son of King Kalyanavarman who ruled in Saurastra in South India. It is believed that in his previous lives he met the Buddha and established in himself the root of liberation. When he was young he studied sciences and martial arts. He respected his teachers very much and was greatly compassionate to suffering people. When he grew up he was chosen as the heir to the throne. On the night before his enthronement, he dreamt of Manjusri sitting on the throne and telling him not to sit on the throne as it was his seat. And as advised by his mother he left the palace and went to the forest of Banga. After arriving at Banga, Santideva met a girl who saved him from drinking poisoned water and sent him to his teacher who was a great lama. From him he received initiation and instructions on meditation. After twelve years of practice he attained pure vision that enabled him to perceive Manjushree and then as advised by his preceptor he went the city to preach what he had learnt. Santideva became an assistant to the king. When dissatisfied subjects threatened the king he came to his aid and the king was converted to Buddhism. When the Vedic master Sankarananda challenged Buddhists, Santideva was chosen to represent them and he won the debate. For this reason Buddhism flourished.
 After his arrival at Nalanda, Santideva received ordination from Jinadeva. There he received the title Santideva or the ‘god of peace’. By practising Samadhi he had gained limitless mental power. He studied the Tripitaka and composed three major texts such as ‘Compendium of All Precepts’, ‘Compendium of All Sutras” and ‘Engaging in the Conduct of the Bodhisattvas’. Ordinary people thought that he was only eating, sleeping and walking. So he earned the nickname Busuku. The monks attempted to force him out of the monastery and made him recite and give a public lecture. Santideva mounted the large throne that was built by them. Everyone proclaimed him as a noble being of great intelligence.
His great teachings were written down by the hearers at Nalanda. As it had three versions, a delegation was sent to Sridaksina in the south where he lived to determine which one was correct. There Santideva said that the text with 1000 verses was the authentic one.  
In the west of Magadha, Santideva met 500 Pasandakas who were desperate to have food due to famine. It is said that he fed all of them with one bowl of rice and converted them to Buddhism. Then he fed thousands of beggars during a famine and gave   them happiness by teaching the Dhamma.
We find in the Encyclopaedia of Religion1that The Sanskrit term Bodhisattvacarya means Bodhisattva path. There are two ways for the Bodhisattvas to cultivate Dhamma namely, through belief and understanding of the twelve causes and conditions, the middle way, or through belief and understanding of the six Perfections or Paramitas.
The Bodhisattva path begins with obeisance and worship of the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. The confession of sins to the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas is also required. After confessing his sins the Bodhisattva seeks help and protection from them. In Mahayana confession is the means for absolving sins and the confessor entreats the Buddhas to cleanse them with the water of mercy. According to Tibetan and Indian cultural tradition there are three qualities of an enlightened being and nine characteristics of noble ones. These three qualities are wisdom, compassion and spiritual power. These qualities gradually develop in the Bodhisattva path and ultimately in attaining Buddhahood. According to the Mahayana Buddhist doctrine the nine characteristics of the noble one are the following: study, contemplation, meditation, teaching, debate, composition, learning purity, and nobility. The first three qualities belong to the foundational level; the second three qualities are teaching, debate and composition. This represents the path level. The final level is the result which is learning, purity and nobility. In the Tibetan ‘Rnam Thar’4 the life story of Santideva is recounted in such a way that each of these nine qualities becomes evident. There we find a clear description of the preliminary stages of study, contemplation and meditation.
 In Sanskrit Buddhist literature confession of sin is known as papadesana and this was said to be as one of the necessary preconditions for the awakening of the thought of Enlightenment. Though at this point of time the spiritual faculty of the would be Bodhisattva in not yet purified and developed up to the standard required for the aspiration and do not result in the thought of Enlightenment, they are fully ripe for the attainment of the status of Bodhisattva. According to Mati Panchen, the Bodhisattva should,” …adopt the four white Dhammas. They are, do not speak lies even at the cost of one’s own life, regard all Bodhisattvas as spiritual masters, generate benevolent towards all sentient beings, and place other beings in the path of the Mahayana. At the same time, the Bodhisattva has to relinquish the following black Dhammas, such as deceiving one’s lama and those worthy of respect, causing others to regret that which is not regrettable, angrily criticizing Bodhisattvas, and adopting cunning and deception to others. Mati Panchen also says that in case of declining enlightenment the following steps should be taken. If enlightenment thought declines due to giving up the wish to attain enlightenment it should be restored by performing the rituals again and carefully guarding the thoughts of enlightenment.
After the demise of the Buddha, Hinayana and Mahayana developed from early Buddhism. Hinayana was the conservative of the two which tried to retain the orthodox teachings and practices in their pure forms. According to it there is only one Buddha who is the historical founder of Buddhism and the highest aim of one’s life is to attain Arahanthood that is to become a good disciple of the Budddha through one’s own effort. The Hinayanists believe that the Pali canons are the main scriptures. Mahayana Buddhism is a later development of Buddhism which gives a new interpretation of the teachings of the Buddha. According to Mahayana teachings Pali canons are not the only scriptural source, Buddhism has many new scriptures written in Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan etc. They also believe that there was not only one Buddha but many. The main purpose of life is not merely to attain salvation for oneself but to help others to attain salvation.   
Though the Buddha expressed his religious doctrine in terms of Dependent Origination or and Middle Path, several centuries later a group of Mahayana texts such as the Vajrachedika Prajnaparamita Sutra and the Hridaya Sutra very forcefully expressed the doctrine of sunyata or emptiness. .The Hridaya Sutra is often bound up with the Vajracchedika Sutra and it rivals its companion in popularity. But they are so closely allied both internally and externally that the question of rivalry does not arise at all. The Hridaya Sutra has two recensions, along and a short one. In the longer recension in the beginning and end we find an account of the circumstances of its preaching. In this Sutra we find a dialogue between Bodhisattva Avolokiteshvara and Sariputra, the great disciple of the Buddha though only the Bodhisattva actually speaks.  
It is relevant to compare and contrast Santidev’s Bodhicharyavatara with Chandrakirti’s Madhyamakavaatara (MA). A great amount of insight can be obtained about the doctrine of sunyata or emptiness and about the Bodhisattvapath if these two texts are read side by side. In Chandrakirti we find a simpler introduction but Santideva delves deeper into the issue. In both these works we find a refutation of the arguments put forward by the opposing philosophical schools. The MA and the Bodhicharyavatara illuminate one another and there is a similarity between their knowledge base. Both Santideva and Chandrakirti use Madhyamika philosophy to explain the path of Bodhisattva and the nature of reality. But the difference is that while Chandrakirt discusses the issue in the light of the Ten Bhumis, Santideva does the same in the light of the Six Paramitas. But both of them believe that the Bodhisattva Path has its beginning in the development of enlightenment thought. It means the desire for enlightenment with a benevolent heart or in other words with the desire to serve every sentient being. After enlightenment though is generated the Bodhisattva begins his journey with the help of practising the Six Paramitas or Perfections namely giving, morality, patience, diligence, meditation and wisdom. By way of practicing the Paramitas one attains the stages named Ten Bhumis that supply Chandrakirti with the framework for discussing the Bodhisattva Path. The Bhumis are known as Extreme Joy, Stainlessness, Producing Light, Radiating Light, Difficult to Exorcise, Manifesting, Gone Far, Immovable, Exalted  Intellect and Cloud of Dhamma. By practising each of these Paramitas Bodhisattva comes closer to the attainment of ultimate knowledge. Both Santideva and Chandrakirti believe that an understanding of emptiness is needed to be able to gain complete enlightenment.5
By emptiness we mean that all persons and phenomena do not have an inherent existence. It is essential to understand and experience emptiness if one wishes to attain complete enlightenment. After the dedication we find in the Bodhicharyavatara an exhaustive discussion on enlightenment thought that is also known as bodhichitta. Santideva frames his entire text on the generation and application of enlightenment thought. He devotes the first three chapters of Bodhicharyavatara for the discussion of the motivation of enlightenment thought, and discusses the application of this thought in chapters 4 to 9. For Santideva there are two types of Enlightened Thought namely relative and ultimate. Relative Enlightenment thought can be further divided into two types, e.g. wishing and entering:6
“In summary this Enlightenment thought
Should be understood of two types:
The mind that wishes to become enlightened
And the mind that actually engages in Enlightenment.”
 (Bodhicaryavatara, 5, 1.15)

Enlightenment is attained not for narrow selfish gain but for the benefit of all sentient beings. The undertaking of Bodhisattva path means entering enlightenment thought. It is the experimental understanding of emptiness and this brings happiness to oneself and others by dispelling sins and makes one a Bodhisattva.
The engagement on the Bodhisattva path formally starts with taking of the Bodhisattva vow that generates enlightenment thought and commits one to enter enlightenment thought until that is achieved. When one takes the oath of helping other beings there is a greater chance that one would follow the path with perseverance. According to Santideva, Bodhisattva vow is the official generation of Bodhichitta.
   The Six Perfections are the means that describe the method with the help of which one engages the Bodhisattva Path. In Sanskrit Perfection means Paramitas and in Tibetan they are called ‘Paroduchinba.” The Sanskrit and the Tibetan words both mean ‘gone to the other shore.” With the help of the six Perfections one we cross the sea of samsara and attain the shore of nirvana. The Six Perfections are the following Giving, Morality, Patience, Diligence, Meditation, and Wisdom. 
The perfection of each individual Paramita can be achieved. A Perfected Paramita has the following characteristics:
1.      Enlightened thought is its motivation.
2.       It is vast because its aim is to help all sentient beings.
3.      It is the source of happiness to people.
4.      It has wisdom that goes beyond the range of subject, object and action.
5.       Its aim is great enlightenment.
6.      It is free from the great obstructions of defilement and cognition.
Now we will discuss the Six Paramitas in detail. It is important to note that each perfection has both a definition and an opposite.
Giving:
Instead of devoting an entire chapter to the Paramita of Giving Santideva addresses this throughout the Bodhicaryavatara. The opposite of Giving or dana is stinginess. Giving or offering can be of three types: mental offerings, offering of one’s own body and Dharma teachings. As the giving of material objects is likely to become perverted by defilements like greed mental offerings are considered to be superior to material offerings.
Morality:
According to Santideva morality is of three types: the cessation of all non virtues, performance of the ten virtues, and working for the benefits of all sentient beings. Santideva discusses the Perfection of morality in two chapters namely in chapters 4 and 5.  Chapter 4 is about heedfulness that means always holding the Bodhisattva precepts in one’s mind. Chapter 5 deals with guarding alertness. This involves the performance of the ten virtues such as stopping killing, stopping stealing, stopping sexual misconduct, stopping lying, stopping slander, stopping harsh words, stopping idle talk, and stopping wrong views. According to Santideva guarding alertness helps one in dispelling fear and in becoming free from the heels of the mind.
Patience:
The sixth chapter of Bodhicaryavatara deals with the Perfection of Patience. Santideva considers Patience as the greatest of all virtues and this helps us to retain our mental composure under extreme provocation.  Patience is of three types namely disregarding harm, accepting suffering voluntarily, the thinking of the certainty of the Dharma. Anger is the opposite of Patience and in order to eradicate anger patience has to be perfected.
Diligence:
The Perfection of Diligence has been dealt with in the seventh chapter of the Bodhicaryavatara. A truly diligent person does not get tired on his way to enlightenment and feels happy in maintaining the Bodhisattva precepts. Laziness or not striving for enlightenment is the opposite of diligence.
Meditation:
 The Perfection of Mediation has been discussed in chapter 7 of Bodhicaryavatara along with the Perfection of Meditation. Meditation directs our consciousness inwardly and according to Santideva its purpose is to get rid of mental defilements and obstructions. Distraction is the opposite of Meditation.
Wisdom:
The ninth chapter of the Bodhicaryavatara discusses Wisdom. This is the longest chapter of the book since it discusses the ultimate nature of reality. According to the Buddha in order to apprehend the nature of reality the perfection of wisdom has to be attained. Madhyamika philosophy tells us that since all things are interdependent they are devoid of any intrinsic existence.
The title of the ninth chapter of Bodhicaryavatara is “The Perfection of Wisdom.” In this chapter Santideva deals with emptiness for the development of wisdom. Here Santideva establishes his view by refuting those of the non Buddhists as well as those of the Sautantrika, Vaibhasika and the Mind only Buddhist Schools. At the outset Santideva supplies the reasons for developing wisdom. Santideva says that the ability to understand emptiness is synonymous with wisdom. It means the understanding which helps us to realize that all persons and phenomena do not have any inherent self. According to Madhyamika philosophy anything must satisfy three requirements in order to qualify as having inherent existence. Firstly, it must have independence, secondly it must have substance (or material), and finally it must have changelessness or permanence.
According to Santideva there are two levels of truth and they are relative truth and ultimate truth. The relative level of truth concerns the observable and mundane world of visible people and objects. The ultimate level of truth, on the other hand, is beyond
the level of intellect but can be directly experienced by means of meditation. In order to become fully enlightened we have to realize first that all phenomena are empty or without selfhood. The awareness of emptiness gives us freedom from all material desires and clinging. Santideva also says that we should study emptiness urgently and out of compassion for all sentient beings.

Notes and References:

 [1]. Dutta, N, Mahayana Buddhism, Sri Satguru Publication, New Delhi, 1978, p.1. see also, Bhikkhuni Gioi Hiong, Bodhisattva and Sunyata, Eastern Book Linkers, New Delhi,2005, p. 125.
2. C. Upender Rao, chodrungma Kunga Chodron, Michelle L.Dexter, Sanntideva and Bodhicaryavatara, Eastern Book Linkers, New Delhi,2005, p.53.
3. The text of Bo. Was first published in the Russian oriental journal Japiski, IV, 1889 by Minayef, by which scholars came to know about the greatness of this text and gradually Bo. Was translated into other European languages. L.D. Barnett ha translated into English in 1909 then it was translated into French twice from Paris; first by Poussin in 1912 and then by Lo Finot in 1920. R. Schmidts german translation appeared im 1923 from Paderbom, In Italian it was translated by G. Tucci and the same was published in 1925 from Torino. Sri Dharmananda Kosambi an Indian scholar of Buddhist studies has translated in into Gujrati and Marathi. Ibid.
4. A commentary on Santideva’s Engaging in the conduct of the Bodhisattvas Written by Sazang Mati Panchen known as An Extremely Clear Illumination of the Meaning of the Text. Translated from the Tibetan by Venarable Lama Kalsang Gyaltsen and Chodrung –ma-Kunga Chodron. Tsechen Kunchab Ling Publications, Walden NY, 2006, see also Ibid., p. 20. 
5. C. Upender Rao, chodrungma Kunga Chodron, Michelle L.Dexter, Sanntideva and    Bodhicaryavatara, Eastern Book Linkers, New Delhi,2005, p.152.
6. C. Upender Rao, chodrungma Kunga Chodron, Michelle L.Dexter, Sanntideva and Bodhicaryavatara, Eastern Book Linkers, New Delhi,2005, p.153.

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1 comment:

  1. My desire to understand more about Buddhism has always been strong. This is an excellent article. I am a huge lover of Thai Buddhas and would appreciate it if you could write about them as well. Thanks

    ReplyDelete