Bhikkhu Sumanapal
Abstract
The aim of Buddhism is to find out the cause of human
suffering and cure it. The fundamental Buddhist teachings centred on
interdependence, non violence and conditionality contribute to the study of
ecology By a close study of the seminal teachings of the Buddha like the
concepts of pratityasamutpada, kamma, the eightfold path, ahimsa, Pancasila and
literature like the Jatakas, Theragatha and Therigatha we can come to the
conclusion that there is a close relationship between Buddhism and
ecology.
It was the German scientist Ernst Haeckel (1834--
1919) who coined the term ecology which meant the study of bio physical
relations of living organisms with each other and their surroundings. Man was
always interested in finding out his relationship with the world around him and
its influence on his moral and social nature and his character. Twentieth
century brought a significant advancement in this field and praised Buddhism
for its holistic and egalitarian outlook to nature. Many Buddhist scholars like
Lily de Silva discovered a close relationship between human morality and
nature. She points out that the Agganna and the Cakkavati Sihananda sutta of
the Digha Nikaya say that greed or Lobha was the main cause of the decline of
human civilization. She was also of the opinion that the Sigalovada sutta,
Kasaniyamettasutta, and Nandivisala Jataka teach us that man depends on nature
for his life but he must consume with moral restraints and true kamma and
rebirth help people to adopt a sympathetic attitude towards natur Stephen
Bachelor in his essay 'The Sand of the Ganges --- Notes Towards a Buddhist
Ecological Philosophy opines that man's unwanted and inordinate greed cause
harmful effect on nature and only the teachings of the Buddha can solve the
environmental problem. Really nature plays a significant role not only in his
teachings but also in his personal life also. Almost all the important events
in his life took place under a tree and in natural surroundings. This makes the
study of the relationship between Buddhism and ecology even more interesting.
Ecology is the study is the study of plants or living
organisms or people in relation to environment Since his evolution man has
sincerely tried to fathom the secret of his relationship with the earth in
which he finds himself. But at the same time man has polluted and defiled
this earth in a variety of ways and this in recent decades have resulted in a
fundamental threat to man's very survival on this planet. At this critical
juncture ecology with its primary field in biology is assumes a significant
part to control this negative human behaviour to save the planet from great
danger.
In the past European scholars believed in the
supremacy of man over nature and engaged themselves in unravelling the
mysteries of nature. In the twentieth century we saw a shift in emphasis in
this regard and new approaches began to attract attention. In an article
written in 1967 on Christianity and environment Lynn White Junior criticized
Christianity and praised Buddhism for its holistic and egalitarian attitude to
nature. According to him, Christianity encourages human domination of nature
but Buddhism preservation of nature.¹
Padmasri de Silva is another scholar who thinks that
there are some Buddhist canonical texts which have a deep ecological
significance.² He is of the opinion that Buddhism teaches us to create a
connection with nature without attachment and with equanimity. Buddhism blames
Lobha, Dosa and Moha as the roots of all evil. The uncontrolled greed of man
results in sensuality and hedonism. The Llobha or greed results in unlimited
demand and desire. The unimaginative pattern of consumption leads to a cycle of
desire and disaster. These problems can be solved through the teachings of the
Buddha.³ Buddhism is engaged in the exploration of human liberation and
establishing a just social order Its aim is to spread the Buddha"s
message without any ritual and ceremony. The most celebrated metaphysical
doctrine of the Buddha paṭiccasamuppāda is considered to be in support of
environmentalism. Chatsumran Kabilsingh is of the opinion that paṭiccasamuppāda
is an example of environmentalism and human culture.
Rita M. Gross admires the Buddha for preaching
Majjhima Pantha or middle path because it advocates a moderate way of consumption.
⁴ She is of the opinion that Buddhist texts can be applied to solve the problem
of population, consumption and environment. One cannot increase the size of the
earth so we have to control population. In Buddhism population control through
contraception is accepted. Buddhism takes reproduction as a matter of choice
and not a matter of duty. It thinks reproduction as something private and not a
subject of public gossip.
In 20th century we can see a new trend in Buddhism and
this is known as Engaged Buddhism. Though engaged Buddhism has all the
essential features of traditional Buddhism it is different from it as it shows
concern for the ideas relevant to modern age. It was Thich Nhat Hanh who coined
the term Engaged Buddhism and the term Socially Engaged Buddhism was recoined in
the 1980s.⁵ Like traditional Buddhists engaged Buddhists also earnestly worked
for mitigating the sufferings of humanity. There were some 'engaged Buddhist
leaders in Asia like His Holiness Dalai Lama who was exiled from his country
China. Apart from him Thich Nhat Hanh and Sulak Sivaraska were two other,
"engaged Buddhist leaders. Sulak Sivaraksa was sent to prison for his
activism in environment related matters. These leaders interpreted the Buddha's
teaching in a different manner and made it relevant to current soci economic
problems. They provide solutions to the problems as well as prescribe novel
ways to end suffering like the training in mindfulness and awareness
programmes. When confronted with the modern and western thoughts Buddhism
divided itself into two groups namely the neo traditionalists and the
reformists. This group accommodated western thoughts but at the same time
retained the traditional Buddhist values. The second group was the Reformist
group who believed that Buddhist teachings can be redefined in accordance with
the modern age and its problems. Undoubtedly Buddhism was influenced a lot by
Western education and thoughts but their methodology and practice appear to be
truly Asian. The 'ecology monk' movement of Thailand bears resemblance with the
Chipko Movement of India led by Sundarlal Bahuguna against rapid deforestation.
Sarvadaya Shramadana was deeply influenced by Gandhiji's Sarvodaya and
Satyagraha. Samdech Preah was another person to have blended Gandhian
philosophy with the concept of dhammayatra made popular by Emperor Asoka. In
order to change Cambodia from a nation ravaged by war into a developed nation
with the help of rehabilitation, socio- economic planning, programmes for
forestation and removal of landmines he started the programme of dharmayatra. ⁶
The engaged Buddhists were eager to popularize their programmes with the
intention to garner some significant response towards environmentalism. In this
field the pioneers were Joanna Macy and Deane Curtin. Macy opines that the
conventional notion of the self should be taken as representing eco- self or
ecological self.
Non-violence is considered as an intrinsic part of
Buddhism and the Buddha declares we should abandon injury and killing as it
causes suffering and hinders the path of salvation⁷ It is advisable to abjure
injury and violence.⁸ Since all living creatures hold their life dear then we
should not kill or instigate others to kill.⁹
On several occasions the Buddha has praised animals
and sometimes have even considered them as superior to human beings.¹⁰ He said
that since animals can be caring, generous and friendly monks can also be like
them.¹¹ He cited the example of a jackal who was howling in order to show his
gratitude before sunrise.¹² Elsewhere he opined that understanding the real
intention of human beings was more difficult than discovering the meaning of
the yelp of the jackals. Usually the Buddha and the elephant are described as
the wanderer of the forest and free from all samsāric activities.¹³ When the Buddha,
after attaining nibbāna was sitting in torrential rain, Mucalinda the naga gave
him shade.¹⁴ In search of the lotus creak that would cure Sāriputta's fever
Mogallāna visited the lotus lake and met an elephant who uprooted a number of
lotus stalks and bundled it for Mogallāna. When annoyed by the quarrelsome
behaviour of the monks the Buddha was staying in Pārilliya forest after leaving
Kosāmbi an elephant named Pārillya visited him and offered him fruits and
food.¹⁵ In Vaishali he was offered honey by monkeys.¹⁶
Buddhism teaches us that the decisions made by human
beings are very crucial for maintaining a healthy relationship between nature
and man. In Buddhist literature the classification of plants can be made on the
basis of their roots (mula), stems (khanda), joints( phulla). head or uppermost
parts (agga), or seeds (vija). According to the Aṅguttara Nikāya there are
three types of plants namely herbs, grasses and forests. In the Buddha's
opinion intentional good or bad actions act as the seed and seeds of good
action are always rewarding. It is like agriculture as here good results always
depend on the quality of soil, abundant supply of water.¹⁷ A good quality
seed produces good crops good and evil action produce good and evil results
respectively.¹⁸ The Dīgha Nikāya says that monks and nuns protect trees and
plants instead of harming them.¹⁹ The Vinaya Piṭaka informs us about the
annoyance of the Buddha when some monks plucked young palmyra leaves or bamboo
to wear as sandals. Once the Buddha scolded monk because he had cut a tree to
build his hut.²⁰ Monks and nuns were prohibited to harm trees and plants and
digging the earth. In the Ghatakara sutta we are told that apart from
practising the five precepts a lay follower should not dig the earth in search
of clay which is needed to make pottery. There is a prohibition for monks to
set fire in the forest and it may cause conflagration which may destroy a
number of animals and plants.
In Buddhism there are two types of living being. They
are mobile or tasa, stationary or sthavara. The Buddha has advised sangha and
the laity alike to behave compassionately with the plants.²¹ So the upasakas
were anxious that grass and herbs might be trampled over by them.²² Some
people complained to the Buddha that during the winter, summer and rainy season
monks trampled over crops and grains and this caused injury to tiny
living beings. One day Channa severed a tree considered auspicious by the
villagers and the villagers complained about it to the Buddha. The Buddha scolded
Channa for this misdemeanour and declared that such an offence would be
considered as a sanghadisesa offence which would result in the suspension or
temporary expulsion of the concerned monk from the sangha. ²³
Buddhaghosa thought that it is the duty of a monk to
save the life of a plant even at the cost of his own life. However the monks
were permitted to cut a tree in order to save the life of another monk. Sacred
forests have a close connection with Buddhism and figure prominently in
Buddha's life. He was born under the sāvana in Lumbini. He attained
enlightenment under the Bodhi tree and died in the sāla grove at Kusinārā. The
Buddha frequently took shelter in forests when lived the life of a wanderer in
search of spiritual truth. In Pali literature we find the Buddha advising
the monks to retire to the forest because it would help them to purify their
minds Many of his disciples lived permanently in the forest. In Pali literature
we find the names of many forests that played a significant part in the
Buddha's life. They were as follows:
Ambapalivana:
The owner of this forest was the famous courtesan
Ambapāli who gifted it to the Buddha when he came to Vaishali in his last
visit. Here the Buddha taught impermanence of the world and stressed on the importance
of good kamma.
Ambavana (Cunda):
The Buddha accepted his last meal Sukaramaddava in
this forest from Cunda. When Cunda met the Buddha for the first time he became
sotāpanna or in other words attained the first step in the spiritual
hierarchy.
Andhavana:
The location of the Andhavana was near Savatthi. Here
the Buddha preached Rahula and helped him to become an arahanta. Nuns such as
Alavika, Soma, Kisagotami, Viljaya, Uppalavanna lived in this forest to attain
knowledge.
Jetavana:
The Jetavana garden at Sravasthi was built by the
great upasaka Anāthapiņḍika, He purchased the garden from Prince Jeta by
covering the ground with pieces of gold. The Buddha spent nineteen vassavasa at
Jetavana. Other setthis like Punabbadsumita, Sirivadda, Sothiya, Accuta, Ugga,
and Sumangala also built monasteries and other buildings for the sangha from
time to time.²⁴
Jivakarama:
The great physician Jivaka was the owner of this grove
and this was located at Rajagriha. Jivak donated this to the Buddha and a
vihara was constructed here. The Buddha preached the Sāmaññaphala sutta here to
Ajatasatru, king of Magadha. The Jivaka sutta was also preached by him at this place.
When the Buddha was injured by the stone struck by Devadatta he was carried to
this forest.
Lumbinivana:
Prince Siddhartha was born in this forest. His birth
place was marked by Asoka by constructing a pillar. Asoka exempted the people
of this area from paying the religious tax during his pilgrimage to the
birthplace of the Buddha.
Mahāvana:
There were three mahāvanas in India in Buddha's time
namely at Vaishali, Kapilavatthu and Uruvela. The famous Mahāvana of Vaisali
had a kūṭāgārsālā and it extended upto the Himalayas. The Buddha himself
resided here for sometime. While the Buddha was staying at Mahavana a
delegation of women under the leadership of Gotami met him and he granted
them the right to enter the sangha.
Nagavana:
Nagavana was a forest near Vaishali. Its owner was
Uggagahapati who was praised by the Buddha as one of the upasaka having great
respect for the sangha.²⁵
Nygrodhavana:
Nygrogharāma was a forest near Kapilavatthu and here
the Buddha resided for sometime during his stay at Kapilavatthu. Here the
Buddha turned down the request of Gotami who wanted his permission to join the
sangha.
Veluvana:
Veluvana was a bamboo grove located near Rājagaha.
King Bimbisāra gifted it for the use of the Buddha and the sangha. It was the
first gift of an arama to the sangha. The Buddha spent his second, third and
fourth rain retreat in the Venuvana. During the Buddha's first visit at
Venuvana Sāriputta and Mogallāna became his disciple.
In The Theragāthā and the Therīgāthă we find
descriptions of nature. The monks and nuns took shelter in a natural
surrounding particularly in a forest in order to find peace and Enlightenment.
In the books mentioned above we find descriptions nature, forest and hills.
Gijjhakuta was a hill covered with forest and it
provided shelter to various plants, trees as well as animals. The green foliage
of the forest was like a screen. Talaputta was a monk who after hearing the
preaching of the Buddha left family life and became a monk and ultimately
attained arhathood.²⁶ He admires the picturesque and peaceful setting of
the Gijjhakuta.²⁷ Another foremost disciple of the Buddha namely Mahakassapa's
ordination took place at the Gandhakuṭi of Venuvana.²⁸
The Buddhist values mean that environment should not
be overexploited. A true Buddhist wants to cooperate with nature and not to
dominate it. He believes that humans and all other forms of life are
interdependent. The economist E.F. Schumacher points out," The teaching of
the Buddha enjoins a reverent and non-violent attitude not only to all sentient
beings, but also with great emphasis, to trees. Every follower of the Buddha
ought to plant a tree every few years and look after it until it is safely established."
(Schumacher 1973:49).
Foot notes:
1. Lynn White Junior, ' The Historical Roots of Our Ecological
Crisis", Science n.s. 1967, pp.1203-07.
2. Padmasiri de Silva, Environmental
Philosophy and Ethics in Buddhism, London, MacMillan, 1998, pp.23-25.
3. Sulak Sivaraska, Conflict, Culture and Change: Engaged Buddhism in a
Globalized World, Somerville: Wisdom Publications, 2005, pp.71-75.
4. Rita M. Gross, "Buddhist Resources for Issues of Population,
Consumption and the Environment' in Population Consumption and the
Environment ed by Harold Coward, Albany: State University of New York, 1995,
pp.291-312.
5. Kenneth Kraft, Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Non
Violence, Albany, State University of New York, 1992, p.18.
6. Matthew Weiner, Mahaghosananda as a Contemplative Social Activists in
Action Dharma: New Studies in Engaged Buddhism ed Cristopher S Queen, Charles
Prebbish, and Damien Kewon London Routledge 2003, pp.110--12.
7. Majjhima Nikāya, 1.p.43.
8. Ibid., 1. 47.
9. Dhammapada, 5.p.129.
10. Majjhima Nikāya, 1.p.13.
11. Vinaya Piṭka, 3.1.
12. Jātaka no, 217.
13. Aṅguttara Nikāya, 4, pp.435-7.
14. Anand Singh, Buddhism at Sarnath, Delhi: Primus, 2014, p.16.
15. Dhammapadaaṭṭhakathā, I. p. 58
ff.
16. Anand Singh, Buddhism at Sarnath, Delhi: Primus, 2014, p.89.
17. Samyutta Nikāya, I. p.134.
18. Ibid., I. p. 227.
19. Dīgha Nikāya, I, p. 64.
20. Vinaya Pitṭaka, 3,p.155.
21. Vinaya Piṭaka, 3, pp. 155-57.
22. Vinaya Piṭka, 4.p. 296.
23. Vinaya Piṭaka, 3, pp.155-57.
24. Aṅguttara Nikāya, I, p.26.
25. Samyutta Nikāya, 4, pp. 306ff.
26. Theragāthā, 5, p. 1108.
27. Aṅguttara Nikāaya,I, p.23.
28. Majjhima Nikāaya, I. pp. 347, 354.
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