Sumanapal Bhikkhu
It is a well known fact of history of
human civilization that the contribution of Buddhism to philosophical thought
is not confined to India; Buddhism has stimulated the intelligentsia in Ceylon
(Modern Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Kamboja (Cambodia), Laos,
Korea, Japan, China, Mongolia, Indonesia, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh etc. to
philosophical endeavour’s. In China, which already possessed a philosophy of
high level Buddhism has greatly developed the indigenous metaphysical thought.
It is well known that Taoism, at least in its later phases and also
Confucianism has been much influenced by Buddhist Theories.
Like the live torch-realy in
Olympic games, the lighted torch of Buddhism from is handed on to Korea and
from Korea to Japan from Ceylon to Burma and Thailand; from Thailand in a later
century to Cambodia. To each of these countries, Buddhism came not the form of
a mere faith or creed, but as a culture-with its word view, its cale of human
values, its perception of the meaning and significance of life. The first
beginning of the process was the passing of India to Ceylon in an early era of
Buddhist history covered by the reign of Emperor of Asoka (C. 274-232 B.C.) In
two centuries after Asoka, Buddhism actually ceased to be regional, and it has spared
and developed all over India and found footing in Sri Lanka. But its after
development in India was in many ways such as served to shift emphasis in the religion
from its cultish to its cultural aspects. To understand the forms of Buddhism
that took in different regions, it is important to know separating legend from
sober history; from what point of Buddhist development each country had
actually derived its Buddhism.
Cultures, different and distinguished in composition and quality, had
grown up during the early period (1st to 7th centuries
AD) indigenous one of a wide range of variety – tribal and preliterate cultures
at one extreme and the ancient culture of China, highly developed and matured
by time at the other. The introduction of Buddhism was thus what
anthropologists term a ‘Culture – Contact’. Buddha – images, carved emblems and
symbols, bits of scriptural text and Buddhist manuscripts, the whole copy or
torn text’s pages – were all that was received from traders and merchants and
wandering monks. In reference to the context of contribution of Buddhism to
art, letters and philosophy to the world from the poetry of Mahathera
Anandavardhan it can be said that Art is the beautiful corporeal frame of
Buddhism, literature is its life-breath and philosophy its mind. Let us first
have the data of contemporary Buddhism in Nepal which is the Lord Gotoma’s
Birth State; actually the place of birth is Lumbini situated in Nepal;
Kapilvastu, a beautiful kingdom in the terrain of Himalayas and Homeland of
Gotama. Siddattha is about 22 km north of Lumbini. During the period of 8th
to 12th century Nepal was a very safe place for Buddhists and
Buddhist culture with flourished condition of Buddhism. But Malla Ruler and
Rana Ruler did not support Buddhism, with Hinduism social changes are brought
by them in Rana Dynasty social changes are brought by them; in Rana Dynasty
social and cultural background was anti-Buddhism and from the 2nd
half of the 19th century Kings made worst situation of Buddhism in
their pursuit of making Nepal a Hindu Kingdom.
Existence of Buddhism was almost lost
due to suppression, obstruction, intolerance, anti-Buddhist policies and social
reforms and continued torture for the activities of rituals of Buddhists in
monasteries, sacred Buddhist manuscripts preserved were thrown by Rana Jang
Bahadur. It’s a pity and shame for country that, the British resident Daniel
Wright of that time in Kathmandu managed to collect those manuscripts and
presented them to the Cambridge University Library. Under bad time of social
and political condition and in adverse situation, an eminent Buddhist scholar
Nisthananda Vajracharya(1820-79) took initiative in translating Buddhist Text
of Sanakrit into Newari language of Newari people of Nepal- it was his silent
cultural revolution. Yogavira Singh Kansykara(1830-1886), a Buddhist devotee
composed poetry based on Buddhist faith, known as Chacha Song(Buddha Doha).
Buddhist monk Dharmadity
Dharmacharya(1920-1963) took initiative in reviving Theravada Buddhist cultural
in Nepal published Buddhist journals “Buddhist India” in English and Buddha
Dhamma Va Nepalabhasa in Newari language. A famous Tibetan Lama “Kyangtse”from
Tibetan region Kham when came to Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, visited Buddhist
stupa Svayambhu Chaitya and his visit in Nepal was treated by Buddhists of
Nepal as extraordinary return gift from Tibet and China where long ago Nepalese
Buddhist Community had gifted warmly in the spread of Buddhism.
First of Nepalese Princess-
Bhrikuti was married with the Tibetan Buddhist King, Srong-Tsan-Gampo and that Nepalese bride
brought deep rooted changes in the spread of Buddhism beyond the Himalayan
region and as a result with joint efforts of Tiber and China an eminent
Nepalese Buddhist artist- Ankio was invited where Buddhist art and architecture
of Nepal were introduced; 66 Therevadi Buddha Viharas constructed. Another
Tibetan Lama-Tsering Norbu came to the valley of Kathmandu and made an ardent
desire to renovate the Svayambhu Chaitya, but the Rana Ruler- Prime Minister,
Chandra Shumsher did not allow the Lama to do anything rather he exiled the
Lama and large number of his admirers and also many Nepalese Bhikkhus who took
shelter in Tibetan region and some good numbers of Nepalese Buddhist Scholars
and monks came to India. Due to Rana Rulers Buddhism of Nepal suffered much in
2nd half of 19th century to 1st half of 20th
century, Buddhist Bhikkhus of Nepal left and started their normal programmes at
different places like Sarnath and Kushinagar of India, and made Dharmodayasabha
– the first Buddhist organization of Nepal. But when through media, countries
of the world condemned the torture and tomentation of Buddhists of Nepal, the
situation changed and became better; a permanent center of Dharmodaya Sabha
founded at Kathamandu, a conference of Buddhists held in which Ven. Narada
Thera of Sri Lanka was a chief guest.
Ven. Dr. Amritananda was the towering personality of Theravada Buddhism
in Nepal. In Nepal, it is said that Lichchavi period was the golden period for
Buddhism, the decline of Theravada started in Malla period. Nepalese Theravada
community is small and little known outside Nepal, but has played immense
significant role in keeping alive the teachings and practices of Buddha and
Buddhism and continuation of the lineage for the welfare of peace and happiness
of many. In course of time Nepal anti-Rana Revolt came to its climax, king
Tribhuvan came to real and legal power in Nepal. Buddhism and Buddhists of
contemporary Nepal witnessed a new sunrise and golden day of revival of the
Theravada Buddhism. Venerable Mahaprajna, a Hindu by name then became the first
person to be ordained by famous Tibetan Lama as the Buddhist monk in 1924 and
the first Nepalese monk of modern Nepal. The Buddha’s Birth Anniversary that
occurs in the month of vesakh (May) every year on the full moon night is
celebrated by all people and communities with the same enthusiasm as the
Buddhists in Nepal. Slaughter of animals for eating their meat is banned on
that day. The celebrations continue last for a week in different parts of the
country.
Eight Biharas- Anandakuti, Viswshanti, Dharmakeerti, Nagara Mandapa
Srikeerti, Shakyasingha, Sangharam Bhikkhu training centre, Sumangala Vihara
and Buddha Samaskrit Vihara were erected and although Nepal was eminently
Mahayana Buddhist country, but during early part of 20th century
Theravada Buddhism penetrated in the country and Buddhism was recognized as the
glory of Nepal and Buddha-Jayanti was also declared as a national holiday in
Nepal. In 1956, the 4th conference of the World Fellowship of the
Buddhist was held there. And thus the account and episode of Buddhism and
Buddhists of Nepal are packed with bitter trials and travails, religious and
social upheavals and above all, full of strength and struggle of the Buddhists
for mastery over the time from which one can drive lessons of history.
Recently on 4th Dec 2009, Nepal Government held a cabinet meeting
at Mount Everest- to highlight the danger of global warming posses to glaciers
and there Ministers signed a commitment to tighten environmental regulations
and expand the nations protected areas. Prime Minister of Nepal, Madhav Kumar
said that the Everest declaration was a message to the world to minimize
negative impact of climate change on Mt. Everest and other Himalayan mountains.
Bhutan is a very nice and beautiful place as if made by God in his own hand at
extreme eastern side of the Himalayan mountain range surrounded by the states
of China and India and is very much nearer to West Bengal, Sikkim, Nepal,
Bangladesh, China and Tibet; the famous river Brahmaputra comes from the Nation
of Bhutan towards India. Forest area of Bhutan is covered with many medicinal
plants. The natural view and the atmosphere with it’s placement in the country
is a very compact with heavenly blessings in all respects.
The Buddhism was introduced in Bhutan in the last part of the 8th
century. C.E. Guru Padmasambhava known as Padmakara was the pioneer of the
Buddhism in Bhutan, gave the principal image of the Dharma to the common people
of the country. From Tibet many eminent Buddhist saints and scholars came to
the country of Bhutan and contributed their valuable thought of life to preach
the doctrine of Lord Buddha and also participated to reform social lives; as a
result Buddhism is placed as the state religion of Bhutan. The Buddhist faith
and its ten virtuous acts have taken a very fundamental role in culture, ethic,
education, administration and human daily life; and also there is a very close
relation and connection with a very good understanding with Japan, China,
Nepal, India and other Buddhist countries. Buddhism has been playing a major role
in Bhutanese life, culture, art, music, education, administration,
care-medicine and practice in all respects with the advanced engaged Buddhism
in modern age.
In Ladakh, Buddhism came by to
channels: The Mons had brought it from India while Dards from Gilgit, but
Ladakh got political turmoil again and again preventing development of
Buddhism; from 11th to 15th century Tibetan from of
Mahayana founded, Likir Monastery built, Maitreya Statue of 25 feet high
erected on the Namgyal Tsemo Hill, good cultural relations between Ladakh and
Tibet established. But again it suffered most, in 19th century
fighting between Kashmiri traders and Ladakh king representative to place and
it became the dark period for Buddhism, many Buddhist monasteries e.g.
Lamayuru, Basgo etc. were destroyed by Dogra Army. In the beginning of 20th
century many discrimination reports reached Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.
Rahul Sanskritiyan and Anagarika Govinda visited Ladakh, submitted report about
the difficulties of Ladakhi Buddhists and asked the Govt. to renovate their
monasteries immediately. In 1934 Young Men’s Buddhists Association was founded,
but unfortunately in 1959, China occupied Tibet and cultural relations of Tibet
and Ladakh stopped which caused serious challenge to Buddhism.
Ladakh Buddhist Association met
Pandit Nehru of India and requested to open Buddhist Philosophy Institute in
Leh and on October 23rd 1959, Central Institute of Buddhist Studies
was opened. India Govt. accepted demands of Ladakh Buddhists and after
agitation, also state govt. agreed and appointed Bodhi teachers to all primary,
middile and high schools in Ladakh, in 1976, His Holiness Dalai Lama delivered
a five-day Kalachakra initiation; He inaugurated 37 feet high Maitreya Statue
in Thiksay Monastery in 1980 in august and again in September inaugurated
Buddhist Youth Society “ Nyams-gso”.
Buddhists in Ladakh kept themselves
busy in renovating their old Buddhist culture and Tradition. But Kashmir Govt.
did not want their unity at the name of Buddhist religion and culture. So again
developmental activities hampered. However, Ladakh Buddhist Association in 1989
agitated against the state policy and demanded Union Territory Status to Ladakh
and they are still facing the problem with a hope to come the time, when
Ladakhi Buddhist problems will be discussed in National level and Ladakh will
be declared Union Territory(UT).
Bangladesh was once the cradle of
Buddhism still bearing traces in the various architectural remains of temples
and monasteries with large number of Buddha images, relics, copper and stone
plates discovered at different times from various parts of the country. Present
independent Bangladesh is the connecting ground between the South East Asia and
the Indian Subcontinent. The followers of the main four religions- Islam,
Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity live in this country side by side. Buddhism
and Buddhist made remarkable contribution in ancient political-socio-cultural-economical
changes and evolution in Bangladesh, at present Buddhists are only 0.6% - they
are plain Bengali Buddhists, tribal Buddhists of the Chittagong Hills Tracts,
plain Rakhain Buddhists and Oraon aborigine Buddhists of North Bengal.
Plain Bengali Buddhists are the
original residents of Chittagong; Barua (majority), Rajbanshi, Singh, Sikder,
Talukder, Chowdhury and Mutsuddi titles are used in Bengali Buddhists. At
present they are advanced in the field of education, custom and manners,
social-cultural-political consciousness and economic solvency. Every aborigine
race in very brightly its own characteristics, chakma, Marma, Tangehangya,
Khumi, Kheayang chak and Murang or Mro are the followers of Buddhism.
Economically they are not solvent and rate of education is very low. The plain
Rakhain Buddhists (the Rakhin race is the descendant of Mongoloid race) are the
followers of Theravada Buddhism. Oraon Aborigine Buddhists of North Bengal live
in 12 districts – Dinajpur, Rajsahi, Naogaon, Jaypurhat, Bogura,
Chanpainababgonj, Rangpur, Panchagar, Siraganj, Natore, Thakurgaon and
ethnologically is the descendents of Non-Aryan Dravidan race or Pre-Dravidian
race, they speak in Kurukh and Sadri language; these Buddhists of Bangladesh as
successors of flourishing Buddhist history and culture of more than 2 thousand
years have remained flowing the Buddhist culture keeping good contribution in
the field of economics, sociology, politics etc.
In the Samyutta Nikaya and
Theragatha we get data of a short biography of Varigish Bhikkhu who was a
natural poet, born in Vanga; he was
living disciple of Buddha. And Avadana Kalpalata in its story of
Sumagadha recorded that Buddha visited Bangladesh. He famous Chinese pilgrim
Yuan Chwang visited Pundravardhana in 638-645 A.D. and noticed Buddhist
Institutions, a large stupas near the Vasu Vihara in the city erected by the
king Asoka himself on the body relic of the Buddha. There were also numerous
stupas in Pundravardhana and that Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in
the land.
In the ancient political history we get
that in the 7th to the 12th century several ruling
dynasties like the Khadga (7th-8th), the Pala (8th-12th),
the Chandra (10th-11th), the Deva (11th-13th),
ruled over Bangladesh and under whose patronage Buddhism prospered in that
region. During the life time of Buddha (the 6th B.C.). Theravada
Buddhism introduced in Bangladesh, and from king Ajatsatru of Magadha of 6th
century B.C. to Emperor Kanishka of the 1st century A.C. Buddhism
went on several changes – among them the important are Theravada and
Mahasanghika.
Most of the followers of Buddhism
in Bangladesh now live in South-Eastern region, especially in Chittagang and
Comilla district, Chittagang hill tracts and Samatata area – there are several
monasteries and in each Buddhist village there is a school where Monks,
Sramanes and boys live and learn to read general studies and Pali. We know
Buddhists are always peaceful and quit mind over the World and also in
Bangladesh because of that are all followed the holy path of Buddha and Vinaya.
The National Museum of Dhaka has a big hall reserved for Buddhist historical Objects
and contains unique Sculpture in stone, metal and wood; the terracotta figures
from Paharpur Monastery (Jaipurhat) arouse great popular interest.
The Theravada religions reformation
movement launched by Sangharaj Saramedha by enkindling the lamp of Saddhamma
and illuminating discourses and finally discarded Tantric practices and a lot
of other Superstitions alien to Buddhism. The reformation movement electrified
the entre Buddhist community and newly reformed Theravada Buddhist Sangha
established for good of the society in Buddhist populated regions. Various Buddhist
Associations, two sects of Nikayas of the Buddhist order (Sangharaj-nikaya and
Mahastabir Nikaya) with several activities developed their community; also
various religions occasion-Holy Buddha Purnima, Ashari Purnima, Prabarana
Purnima, Kathin-Chibar-Dana etc. are all big celebration of Buddhists in
Bangladesh. Today the Buddhist community is making endeavours to forge ahead in
their religious social and cultural activities.
The ancient monasteries at Paharpur
(Rajasahi Region) and Mainamati (Comilla Region) of 7th-9th
century A.D. are considered unique for their size and settings and are
maintained as state protected monuments by the ministry of Religious Affairs.
For the better interest of keeping speedy the flow of mutual love and amity,
activities of care for human life in the state among the diversity of religious
faith the Govt. of the people’s Republic
of Bangladesh has been taking various programs on Buddhists and Buddhism which
are of positive hope in this modern age.
In Tibet, a symbolic start
of Buddhism is believed to be have happened around 5th C.E., during
the reign of the 28th Tibetan king Lha Thothari Nyentsen, with this
spontaneous appearance of some scriptures and symbols of Buddhist. Teaching as
a sign of its spread soon. It is a known fact that one immediate effect of the
contact of the Buddhist culture with Asian cultures that where pre-literate was
to bring about their transition to the literate stage, and the evidence in the
case of Tibet is direct and historical. The reform of the Tibetan language by
putting it on a grammatical basis and the invention of script to write it were
due to the felt need for making Buddhist texts accurate by Tibet, intelligible
to the people. It was the achievement, according to Tibetan historiographers,
of Thonmi Sambhota, who was one of the ministers of the king Songtsen Gampo (33rd
king of Tibet) in the 7th century A.D., and commissioned by the king
to the Nalanda Mahavihara of India for study Sanskrit language and script, when
the great Chinese pilgrim and scholar, Hsuan-tsang was also in residence there;
after his return to Tibet he created the Tibetan script for the first time. He
also started translating some of the teachings of Buddha that he had brought
with him from India into Tibetan.
The major spread of Buddhism in
Tibet occurred in the 8th century under the region of Tibet’s 38th
king Trisong Deutsen; the king invited Shantrakshita and Padmasambha to Tibet
to teach the people of Tibet the teachings of the Buddha. Samya, the first
Buddhist temple in Tibet was built and a monastic order was established with
seven Tibetan monks. After five hundred years later, all the canonical and
commentarial works had been translated into Tibetan and at present most of the
manuscripts of the Buddha’s teachings are not available but they are all
available in its Tibetan translation. More than one hundred volumes of Kangyur,
Teachings of Buddha, and more than two hundred volumes of Tengyur, the
commentarial works of the great Indian masters were preserved in Tibet. Major countries where Buddhism spread and
preserved were Sri Lanka, China, Japan and Tibet. The dissemination of the
Buddhist teaching in Tibet took place in two phases the school that developed
within the first phase was Nyingmapa school and Kagyupa, Sakyapa and Gelugpa
schools developed in the late phase. Both the teachings of Sutra and Mantra was
translated into Tibetan but teachings of Mantra which is also known as the
‘Secret Mantra Vajrayana’ was more widely spread and practiced in Tibet. All
the teachings of Buddha flourished for over hundreds of years due to the 33rd
king Songtsen Gampo, 38th king Trisong Deutsen and the 42nd
king Tri Ralpachen and all became the most renowned Dharma kings of Tibet.
In case of contemporary Tibet
it is in the hand of His Holiness Dalai Lama who got the dignity and nobility
of ‘Chos Srid Zung’ bsdrel (religion based politics) to control the political
system for between 631 A.D. to 836 A.D. Tibet and China during the Tang
imperial period were often at war and finally ended in a good relation with the
Tang emperor Tai Tsang and with his daughter princess Wen Cheng in matrimonial
alliance to mighty Tibetan king Srongtsen Gumpo. The Chinese princess Wen Cheng
took with her silk worm eggs and large number of Han craftsmen specializing in
brewing, rice milling, paper and ink-making beside the statue of Buddha which
helped in promoting the economic, social and cultural development in Tibet and
among its people at some extend.
According to the traditional
history of Tibet and particularly the great Tibetan historian Buston is
concerned, it’s said that the Chinese princess was largely responsible for the
introduction of Buddhism in Tibet and the Tibetan people considered her as an
incarnation of the divine mother Tara (Sgrol ma). In this way in the later
period during the rule of Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 A.D.) the relation between
China and Tibet were very close and warm for during these periods there were no
less than hundred missions exchanged between the two countries and eight
treaties concluded during their course of friendly relationship.
The transformation that Tibetan
Society underwent was just owing to the spreading of Buddhism as like from a
warrior nation to a peaceful community, from Warrior Kings to Lama rulers, from
‘Bonpo’ magic to Buddhist rationality, realism and pragmatism last but not
least from violence to compassion and peace loving nation. However, the
introduction Buddhism in Tibet was not merely the transfer of new faith but it
wipe out with treasures of civilization values which in fact changed completely
the core structure lives and dignity of Tibetan peoples at large as it included
medicine, astrology, painting, architecture and most important thing is the
script, the written form of language and Buddhist literatures.
The Tibetan chronicles also
reveal of violent struggle between the two sides during the middle of 9th
century A.D. when the real face of the struggle between two rivalry groups
Buddhists and Bonpos followers were set into serious fighting and consequently
the followers of Buddhism were crushed out by the horrific king ‘Lang Darma’.
Struggle period went on up to 11th century A.D. but it revived and
invigorated very soon with the appearance of Indian Pandit Padmasambhava in 747
a great Tantric master and missionary Atisa Srijnana Dipankara in 1038 and with
the passionate will power of Tibetan masters Mar pa and Lo tsa Wa Rin Chen Zang
Po once again the renaissance of Buddhism in Tibet entered into a period of
genuine development characterized by the origin and development of numerous
sects and schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Throughout the period 16th ,
17th and 18th centuries the Lamas developed Buddhist
though some opposition and rivalry erupted from the Karma Pa followers. But
from 1642 the 5th Dalai Lama Nawang Lob Zang Gyatso of Ge lugpa’s of
Tibetan Buddhism bestowed with both the spiritual and temporal powers and
consequently being ruler of the land, and the pure land later ruled by
successive religions heads.
Now in 21st century
Tibet the Buddhist teaching is modified and elaborated in various ways with
love and care for human life concerned to ecological contexts and modern need
of Green Buddhism with social and cultural activities combined. Tamraparini the
island of Lanka or Ceylon is now known as Sri Lanka where Buddhism was
introduced by Thera Mahinda in the reign of Devamapiya Tissa (3rd
century B.C.). Thera Mahinda with his six fellow monks founded the Buddhist
Singha, and the Jina Sasana was established in the country. Relics of the
Buddha were obtained from Emperor Asoka and they were enshrined at the
Thuparama Dagaba, in the sacred city Anuradhapura of Sri Lanka. The bringing of
Bodhi-tree by Their Sanghmitra and the relics of the Buddha along with His
pindpata (alms bowl) strengthened the great cultural link between India and Sri
Lanka.
In the 7th century A.D.
there were two main branches of Sri Lanka Buddhism; the Mahaviharavasins which
represented the orthodox Theravada School and traditionally said to have been
brought by Mahinda Thera, and the Abhayagirivasins, which adopted many elements
of Vetulayaka branch of Mahayana teachings. The Mahaviharavasins had their head
quarters at the Mahavihara in Anuradhapura. The Theravada from of Buddhism
exits in Sri Lanka, Burma (Mayanmer), Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and in Laos and
is the tie that binds Sri Lanka with all these countries of South-East-Asia. In
11th century A.D., the Buddhist countries of South-East-Asia came
into close contact with Sri Lanka, the foundation head of Theravada Buddhism.
The Buddhist order of Sri Lanka was introduced in Pagan in Upper Burma
(Mayanmer) in the reign of Narapatisthu (A.D. 1173-1210).
There were also oppositions against
Buddhism, still, overcoming the hostile activities Buddhism became expected
religion, it moulded thought ideas and literature, and also preserved it for a
long time, again, extended its horizon toward all directions northwards to
central Asia, Tibet, China, Korea, Mongolia and Japan. The king of Sri Lanka
Sri Vijaya Raja Simha (1739 A.D.) before the king Kirti Sri Raja Simha was
grieved and pained at the decline and moribund state of Buddhist order in the
island and he decided to send his envoys to the court of the Thai king in the
earnest hope of inviting the Thai Buddhist Sangha to re-institute the higher
ordination. But he died soon and after him succeded Kriti Siri Raja Simha who
had strong desire to restore the purity of the Buddhist order in the island;
and as a result of his noble request to the Thai king, 18 Thai monks went to
Sri Lanka in A.D.1752 and the king Kirti Siri Raja Simha received the royal
delegates in a grand way at Sirivaddhanapura (Kandy). The Thai Sangha was
accommodated at Puppharamvihara near the capital and the lay-envoys in the
royal guest house. All the Bhikkhus observed Vassavasa in the monastery and
after Vassavasa the Thai delegates were taken to visit holy place in Sri Lanka.
It is said that in course of mission
of Thai monks in Sri Lanka 700 bhikkhus and 300 Samaneras were ordained by
Upali Mahathera of Thai and he spent three years in Sri Lanka. The king
Boromakot of Thailand and king Kirti Siri Raja Simha of Sri Lanka were responsible
for the reform of the Buddhist order in the island (Sri Lanka), which was once
been the stronghold of Theravada Buddhism. The reformed Buddhist Sangha in Sri
Lanka came to be known as Syamvamsa or Upalivamsa Nikaya after the name, of
Venerable Upali Mahathera even up to the present day. The reign of king
Boromakot of Thailand marked the closer relation based on culture and religion
between Thailand and Sri Lanka.
But once the pure land of
Buddhism is now emerging from a backward 3rd world country with a
poor record of human rights to a modern democracy. Still, the island Sri Lanka
is gaining its previous rightful place as in the Anuradhapura period are bright
and full of promise and all hope Buddhism and Buddhist order will flourish and remises
a great service to the Sasana and people of Sri Lanka allied with the modern
social-economical and environmental and health care requirements based up on
love, thought, ideal, science of Buddhism for happiness of humanity.
The text Sasanavamsa mainly contains
the account of the history of Buddha’s religion in Burma (modern Myanmar) and
deserves special attention; it is written by the Burmese monk Elder Pannasami.
The early writers on the history of Buddhism have maintained that it was
introduced from Northern India to Burma, and lower Burma had the reputation of
being a Buddhist country. But in the 11th century the King Manohari
of Lower Burma was conquered by King Anuruddha of Upper Burma and the King
Anuriddha carried with him the Buddhist monks, sacred Buddhist scriptures etc.
and also the King Manohari with him to Upper Burma and established the true
religion. After this incident, the tradition about Lower Burma ceases to
continue for a certain period. Again, during the King Narapatisithu (1167A.D.)
emergence of Buddhism happened in Lower Burma; and Buddhism in Lower Burma
reached its apex under the patronage of the latter notable King Dhammaceti
whose earnest zeal for the cause of Buddhism undoubtedly places him in the
forefront of the religious history of lower Burma.
Uttarajiva, Mahathera, the
preceptor of King Narapatisithu, accompanied by Chapats, the novice and other
disciples of Burmese Sangha, came to Sri Lanka in A.D. 1170 to worship at holy
shrines and after worshipping at the shrines return to Pagan in Upper Burma,
but Chapata received ordination in Sri Lanka, admitted to the Sihala Sangha and
remaining there for ten years, studied and acquired full knowledge of Tipitaka
and their commentaries, earned designation of Mahathera and then with four
other monks returned. After returning to Burma Mahathera Chapata established
Sihala Sangha in Burma; he wanted to bring the close touch with the Theravada
Buddhism on Sri Lanka. These five monks under the patronage of King Narapatisithu
performed Upasampada ordination on Burmese monks who wanted to join the Sihala
Sangha and in course of time with the help of the Sihala Sangha, Burma
established itself as a centre of Theravada Buddhism.
Siam (Thailand) is the next
important country with which Sri Lanka had a fair amount of religious intercourse.
The human element of religion is the basis of human existence, so the religion
enshrines the understanding of religion beyond religiosity with all
encompassing and all embracing nature full of love, compassion, understanding
and brotherhood which is vital for the promotion of peace and harmony in
society and the term “Engaged Buddhism” was first coined by Vietnamese Zen Monk
Thich Nhat Hanh in 1963 when Vietnam was fighting a terrible war against the
USA. The Buddhist movement often focuses on the Dhamma in order to prove that
its social content is very rich, since it prefers engagement and co-operation
rather than renunciation. The Middle Path which avoids the extremes of asceticism
and the life of sensual pleasures makes its scope very wide, flexible and
robust and the doctrine of Pratityasamutpada is nothing but interdependence,
hence for the betterment of individual life and society. In the 16th
century A.D. the Sihala Sangha continued to flourish in Thailand.
Thailand, a predominantly
Buddhist country provides an interesting illustration for the growth of
Buddhist resurgence movement in the 20th century; but before that-
the crisis stemmed from its political instability and the preference of the
people for the western way of life being disinterested in learning Pali
language or visiting Sangha. For this situation reformers and re-thinkers conveyed
message to the people that Buddhism is not a hopeless case and that is capable
of addressing all problems confronting the world today and Buddhist teaching
relevant to all beneficial effect for a society and thus, it becomes
increasingly necessary to trace out the main causes which led to the urge for
fresh interpretation of the Dhamma in Thailand and other countries.
Now Buddhist social movement which
is popularly called as “Engaged Buddhism” – developed and launched by
Buddhadasa and Sulak Sivaraksa- opening schools, health care centers, green
houses, meditation centers etc. with increasing on slaughts of modernization, secularization
and westernization to bring about some socio-religious reforms successfully.
The summer meditation program are
organized for the University students to draw them closer towards Buddhism,
periodic seminars on certain current problems - such as aids, Gender education
etc. also organized for democratic traditions illustration from Agganna –Sutta
of Digha-Nikaya of Tipitaka were used. Arguments occurred that the Buddhist
doctrine of Four Noble Truths, the Dependent Origination no-self etc. are not
more conceptual constructs but guide lines, which have relevance in our daily
life; also transformations and upgradations are made for the benefit of modern
society, the unique five precepts (Pancasila) is interpreted in the context of
country’s and people’s contemporary problems like Nuclear waste, Gender
problems, Exploitation, the Govt. support for drugs, alcohol and tobacco
industries and all other modern problems to be solved for better life in the
world. Modern Thailand is an overwhelmingly a Theravada Buddhist country
meeting the requirements of modern age with love and care all based on
Buddhism.
Kambuja (Modern Cambodia) was
colonized by adventurous Indian settlers during the early centuries of Christan
era. Indian colonists played vital role in the cultural development of the
country, Indian social, religions and political systems are developed there and
that was gladly accepted by local Kher people of Cambodia. The whole area
Suvarnabhumi in South-East-Asia is colonized and later divided into independent
countries like Brahma, Siam, Kambuja and Champa.
Buddhism flourished in Cambodia in 2nd half of the 5th
century A.D. which was whole hartedly patronized by kings like Suryavarman 1st
and Jayavarman VII who showed their reverence to Lord Gotama Buddha. The
earliest inscriptions of Cambodia were engraved in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit
language with Brambhi and Pallavi script. Mahayana Buddhism was developed first
and later on, Hinayana Buddhism by Buddhist monks of Simhala Dvipa; Buddhism
was present in the kingdom of Funan in Mekong delta as a secondary religion in
earliest times – a Sanskrit inscription from 375 A.D. documents the presence of
Buddhism in Funan. There were ten monasteries of Buddhist monks and nuns
studying the sacred text in 4th – 5th centuries and then
two renowned monks from Funan travelled to China at the request of Chinese
emperor to translate the Sans. Tripitaka into Chinese.
Some pre-Angkorean statuary in
Mekong Delta region indicates the existence of Sans. Based Sarvastivada
Buddhism. Khmer – style of Buddha images are abundant from the period of 600-800
A.D. Many Mahayana Bodhisattva images also date from this period, often found
alongside the predominantly Hindu images of Siva and Visnu. In the Angkor
Kingdom of Cambodia the transition from Hindu God-king to Mahayana Buddha-king
was gradual and imperceptible, the descriptions of Bodhisattva, Maitreya and
Avalokitesvara are found in Prasat-Takam inscription of 713 of Saka era.
Suryavarman – I (1002-1050 A.D.) is considered the greatest of the Buddhist
kings expecting only Jayavarman – VII, the greatest of the all Khmer Mahaya
Buddhist kings, who worked trilessly to establish Buddhism as the state
religion of Angkor and he was considered to be a living Buddha or Bodhisattva
who turned his back from the brink of enlightenment to redeem or save his
people from sufferings. He built numerous public works to serve people,
including water works, hospitals, temples, hospices for travelers; his temple
the Bayon in Angko Thom, is the first temple built without walls indicating
openness to all people.
The Buddhist king of Cambodia had done several works for community
development also under their religious activities and after 13th
century Theravada Buddhism became the state religion and continued to flourish
in 16th century; king Satha (1549-1576) son and successor of king
Barom Reachea restored the great towers of the Angkor Wat, which had become a
Buddhist shrine. But it is unfortunate enough that in 1975 when the Communist
Khmer Rouge took control of Cambodia and tried to completely destroy Buddhism
and very nearly succeeded. But at present Buddhism is the official state
religion of Cambodia.
Again Cambodia played an important vital role in the development of
Buddhism in Laos in 1353 A.D. When the kingdom of Lan Chang in Laos was founded
by Fa-Ngum who was the son-in-law of Jayavaramana Paramesvara, the king of
Cambodia. In Mongolia, Buddhist religion developed in Mongolia during the Hun
period, the early ancestors of he Mongols – there is evidence and according to
history, the introduction of Buddhism took place in 4h – 6th century
A.D. and existed upto the end of 11th century A.D.; the first
monastery in Mongolia founded in north by the Russian Fedaration, in the east,
south and west by China, was setup in 902 A.D. by the Kidans. Since the time of
Chinahis Khan and after his successor Kharakhorum, the capital of great Mongol
Empire was one of the greatest cultural religious and political centers of its
time in the world. Buddhists, Christians, Nestorians, Muslims and the followers
of confusions co-existed by setting up their own temples, monasteries, mosques
which had their own governing bodies.
Buddhism flourished in Mongolia
during the reign of Khubilai Khan (1215 – 1294 A.D.) who reversed and supported
Buddhism and sought religious instruction from a learned Tibetan Lama. In
course of time a large number of the Tibetan version of the Indian Texts were
rendered in Mongolian. Mongolian translation of Tibetan Kanjur and Tanjur was
completed in 1603 – 34 A.D.; the Avadana Stories in Buddhist Sanskrit and the
Pali Jatakas are also translated in two collections namely Uligarum Dalai
(ocean of compassion) and the Altam Garal (Gold Lusture). The religious school
of Gandan in 1739, produced highly educated and celebrated Lama of the time,
who were renowned all over the world. Buddhist religious knowledge and
intellectual development in Mongolia, until the end of 19th and
beginning of 20th century was amongst the best in the world.
According to survey the ratio of Buddhists and other followers of religious
faiths is 13:1; under the present condition Mongolian Buddhist dignitaries work
in close contact with the Buddhist religious organization of Asia, Europe and
America. Prominent Mongolian Buddhist dignitaries have been elected to the
leading post of Asian Buddhist Federation. Contemporary Applied Buddhism or
Engaged Buddhism or Green Buddhism in China, Japan, Hong Kong etc. and all over
the world in the Buddhist countries: - It’s a real truth that religion can be
most powerful influence on the world view, values, attitudes, motivations,
decisions and behavior of individuals, groups and societies for better world. In
this modern age, Buddhist environmentalism draws a level upon traditional
Buddhist concepts such as non-harming; compassion, mindfulness and
interdependences. The attitudes of Buddhism are to preserve the traditional
Buddhist philosophy through its application in the crisis of the society – and
is recognized as “Engaged Buddhism” under Applied Buddhism – with which
Buddhist leaders and organizations search the root regarding the crisis of
modern world environment and solution of the crisis like global warming,
pollution, diseases like cancer, aids etc., again and death problem with love,
medicine and ultimate care for liberation from sufferings with body and mind.
Passing from mid- Asia to China,
Buddhism found itself right in the midst of a foreign culture far in advance of
others, matured by age and nourished by two schools of thought and philosophy –
Confucianism and Taoism. Chinese history itself is one long illustration of how
‘historic accident diverts a cultural drift’ – which is the working out of
those consequences that seem logically to follow from the way in which a
culture is organized, - the interests of those persons who make up society and
the ends they seek in terms of the values sanctioned by their culture. An
account of an Indian Artist from Nepal – whose name was A-r-ni-ko (from Chinese
sources) arrived in the court of Kublai Khan about 1263 A.D. and well received
by the Emperor; he instructed the Chinese artist in the art of Indian sculpture
and found there the representatives of all the great faiths of the world, and
he himself was able to defeat Marco polo, a glorious representatives of Europe.
A-r-ni-ko was native of Nepal – who formed on the Nepalese origin of the “ pagoda
“ style in China and also in Japan; he completed a pagoda of gold in Tibet.
In China, different sects arose due to
the emphasis laid on the authoritative text by the monks, but with regard to
the origin of sects in Tibet the case has been different and more than ten
sects came into existence due to the religious reformations made by both Indian
and Tibetan teachers, such as Padmasambhava, Atisa, Marpa, Milarepa and others.
Under the Buddhist Wei dynasty (386
A.D.) contemporary of the Imperial Giptas, Buddhist Turkish rulers of China
came to be great builders of rock-cut-temples and other monuments when two
great Indians- the scholar Kumarjiva (344-413 A.D.) and Gunavarman, the painter
– missionary from royal family of Kashmir, came all the way through China and
Java to Nanking introducing a new school of painting. Their contemporary was a
great poet Tao Chien (365-427 A.D.) who studied Buddhism and founded the White
Lotus Society.
In 529 A.D., Nanking was fortunate
to be visited by the silent sage Bodhidharma who is worshiped even today as the
patriarch of the Dhyana (Zen) school of philosophy. The Chinese Buddhist art of
Liang and Nanking directly influenced the Buddhist art of Korea and through
Korea that of Japan.
Buddhism was introduced from its
home of origin in India by the Buddhist monks into China through the silk roads
in 1st century A.C. and from China it spred to Hong-Kong initially
it had to face hostility during the period of three Kingdoms in China, but the
revival and triumphant of Buddhism occurred during Tang Dynasty (A.C. 618-907).
Hong-Kong is situated off the southern coast of the Mainland of China and 32
km. east of the mouth of Pearl river; since July 1, 1997, it had been
officially designated as Hong-Kong special Administrative Region of China. It
is an eclectic mix of the 21st century and ancient times, where
modern skyscrapers rub shoulders with colonial buildings and traditional
Chinese Buddhist temples.
Prior to the British occupation
during the 19th century Hong Kong and its adjoining islands were
mostly inhabited by the Chinese people who before 1949 were ardent followers of
Buddhism and His doctrine and still now these regions have maintained their
autonomy in administrative and religious affairs. Thus in Hong Kong and its
neighboring island 90% of total population has remained Buddhist in their life
and culture. Even during the contemporary period that is from 19th
to 21st century, the number of Buddhists increased considerably and
many Buddhist temples and monasteries were established, images of Buddha and
Buddhist deities had been installed throughout Hong Kong Special Administrative
region, at present there are more than 600 Buddhist Temples.
The academic studies and research
in Buddhism in Hong Kong have thrived over the past 50 years. The University of
Hong Kong has a Centre of Buddhist Studies offering Masters, M. Phil., and
Ph.D. degrees in Buddhist studies under the Faculty of Social Sciences. Topics
of studies include history and doctrines of different Buddhist traditions,
contemporary Buddhism and Buddhism as applied in counseling, palliative care
and Psychotherapy, with particular reference to current scholarly research. All
the courses of Master of Buddhist Studies(MBS) Degree are offered on a semester
basis.
Libraries of Universities posses
huge, enviable collections of Buddhist works including original texts in Pali,
Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese as well as their English translations and
publications on Applied and Humanistic Buddhism; also Museum and Art gallery
apart from the collections of Chinese Art and Culture, preserves and displays
some Buddhist Art Objects to educate the students and public at large. The
Chinese University of Hong Kong maintains a centre for the study of humanistic-
Buddhism and research work with relevant topics, very relevant in the 21st
century and have every modern facilities of Reference Resources, reading
materials on Indian and Chinese Buddhism, Buddhist Art including Archaeology
Painting and Sculpture and Buddhist Rites and Rituals – both in book and
audio-visual forms.
In Hong Kong the Buddhist
organizations and temples have long been involved in social welfare and
education in the city; the Buddhist’s Association operates primary, secondary
schools, hospices, old age home and centers for the youth and children. Under
the Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa – who was himself a Buddhist, the HKSAR Govt.
reorganized the impact of Buddhism in Hong Kong and designed public holiday in
May or June to mark Buddha’s birthday and made delightful development in art –
architecture – literature – study the ideals of Confucianism, Taoism and
Buddhism with practice of Buddhist ethics and virtues.
Galleries of Hong Kong have a
major collection of exceptional art featuring Buddhist paintings, terracotta
figures from different Chinese dynasties, archaic bronzes, stone sculptures,
gold and silver wares etc.; it also possesses a beautiful bronze figure of
Maitrey a Buddha of Ming Dynasty.
In Hong Kong lies the Yuen Yuen
Institute which is a religious complex, with a Buddhist Monastery in the campus
in an immaculate the tranquil environment in Sam Dip Tam. The ten thousand monasteries
at the top is a scenic setting, an impressive display of 12,800 miniature
golden Buddhist figures. Hong Kong at large has still been preserving her old
traditional Buddhist heritage witnessed in the Buddhist temples and monasteries
newly constructed during the contemporary period. Now the aggressive countries
China, Japan, Twai, Tibet, Thailand etc. exquisitely developed the activities
for the real relief of human suffering of body and liberation of mind for peace
and happiness by several ways touching Buddhist philosophy with social, ecological,
psychological, economical, educational thought and plan accordingly. International
Buddhist Brotherhood Association, Japan (KOKUSAI BUKKYO KORYU KYOKAI) made
Buddhist House at Both – Gaya, Japanese Temple for peace, Kindergarten school
for children, a free clinic Komyo Free Medical Centre which runs on regular
basis with all Indian staff and equipment and organized International Buddhist
Conference with aim of research and discussion to make beneficial result in
future for human kind.
How impressive is the address
of Ven. Toshifumi Kusaka – “…….. Buddhism (1400 years ago) reached in Japan, it
makes Japanese culture profoundly. Social condition frequently becomes worship
of money. We have to go straight without to be led astray. Food, clothing and
shelter, which maintain my life is not my mine at all. Everything expect me
support my daily life. We have to be greatful to everything, which maintains my
life with awareness for all my life. Ancestor masters of Pure-land Buddhism in
Japan thought us to be grateful the power, which supports everyone with self
sacrifice. Moreover we have to repent our sins.”…
Massage of conferences with main theme –Aging
and Dying: Relevance in Buddhist perspective to End of Life-care, an essential
theme of our human life. Recently the excellent and impressive activities of
Tzu Chi Buddhist University General Hospital in Hualion Taiwan and National
Taiwan University (NTU) Taipei Taiwan are illustrative examples of Buddhist
Terminal Care; also Kindergarten, Primary – Higher – Secondary schools and
university and graduate school are added thus become “Buddhist Tzu Chi
University with big Hospital and began saving lives through medicines with
great love. Doctors, who started the hospice, are under the strong influence
from St. Christopher’s hospice in U.K. with Cecily Saunders, the mother of
hospice and have also visited and learning from them as well as Hong Kong and
Singapore hospice; they believe that three elements should be noticed for death
education
1.
To know that death is inevitable, as you
must accept it;
2.
To know that we all beings cannot escape
death and so you should seek the solution for it;
3.
To develop your inner ability, faith in
Buddha.
Patient perform an assessment of a good
death using – freedom from the pain, at peace in mind with Buddha, presence and
support from family, mental awareness and care, treatment choices and other
assessments are – understanding oneself is dying and it is near, peaceful
acceptance of the end, proper preparation, proper timing and proper comfort in
the last moment.
The principle of NTU care is team
care – doctors, nurses, social workers, volunteer helps, Buddhist priest (many
nuns) are going around the all beds for two hours once in every week. Once a
month they have conference through video with other hospice in different part
of Taiwan. They exchange opinions like telling truth, informed consent, symptom
control, spiritual care with success and failure. The work is expanded through
the recent establishment in 2007 of the Taiwan Association of Clinical Buddhist
Studies.
Various Buddhist organizations are
actively engaged to care Deep Ecology – whose core principle is the claim that
the human kind is an integral part of environment and the living environment
has the same right to live and flourish. Buddhist organizations through its
network committed to social justice with ecological vision and based on engaged
spirituality by their founder Sulaka Sivaraksa, the founder of the
International Network of Engaged Buddhists, is Thailand’s leading dissident and
public intellectual, author of many books and articles; he has been jailed and
exiled several times by Thai authorities for speaking out about state policies
on environmental justice and human rights and in 1995 received the Right
Livelihood Prize from the Swedish Parliament; He spoke about non-violence as
the master precept of Buddhism discussed the ways in which Buddhism’s other
precepts are related to this master teaching.
International network on
Engaged Buddhist is the network of Buddhist monks, nuns, thinkers, social
workers and community leaders with an aim to integrate the Buddha’s messages on
wisdom and compassion for social transformation to achieve a healthy and
peaceful world with alternative education, spiritual training, gender-issues,
human rights, ecology, alternative concept of development and activism for
actual sufferings of human kind. His Holiness Dalai Lama, a Universal Religious
Leader is the contemporary instance to follow the conscious ecology to teach
His followers in whole Universe. According to Him – taking care of the
environment should be the part of man’s daily life.
Actually the environmental
problems are created by man and they can be resolved by human effort and
activity based on a good heart, cultivation of altruism, of love and
compassion, of awareness and eliminating anger and greed, and selfishness for
which men inflict pain on others for their own happiness. Buddhism, the human
religion cultivating goodness and happiness to all now coordinating science and
technology may dispel the misery of human civilization.
In this 21st century
world, there is explosion of population with insatiable desire and greed for
consumerism and development, due to which deforestation, global warming,
disproportionate flood, earthquake, altered wind rotation, rainfall, ozone
layer depletion, melting of ice-bergs and so on changed climate pushing human
to dangerous situation. In this scenario, Green Buddhism can play a decisive
role for providing sustaining and preserving nature and thereby climate change
in this modern era. The philosophy behind green- Buddhism is to apply religion
for preserving greenery – flora and fauna and gift of nature such as air,
water, fire, earth, sky and so forth for happy humanity.
The Buddhist Sangha is
engaged in aforestation in Thailand, China, Japan, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Sri
Lanka and so on; the forest cover of Northern Thailand has increased to a
significant extent with the help of Buddhist clergy as well as laity; it seems
to them that the practice of Green Buddhism is indispensible for survival of
human beings, animals and plants which is need of the age.
“Sabbe Satta bhavantu Sukhita’tta”
– is a message and prayer of Buddhists and hence ‘Live and Let Live’ may be
understood as the gist of the message. Human civilization has developed on the
basis of mutual understanding and tolerance, caring for one another, for man
has to depend on others for fulfilling his various needs so to get best, man
ought to keep them in good and healthy shape and care for neighbor and nature
in his environment.
Lord Buddha praises not only pure
water and air, but also a calm and quiet atmosphere. Kutadantasutta mentions
the Buddhas as performing spiritual Yanja which does not involve cutting off
any living trees or Kusa grass. “Na rukkha chijjimsu yupatthaya,
Na dabbha luyimsu barihisatthaya.’’
In the Patimokkha of Vinaya rules,
mercilessly and indiscriminately cutting of trees have been condemned and the
concerned cutter may be held to have committed Pacittiya. Scholar Buddhist
activists prefer the term ‘Engaged Buddhism’ with explanation that it is not
merely a theology and intellectual philosophy and emotional imagination, but it
does emphasize on the practical aspect of life. Sila is to be practiced with
and towards other, through metta (loving kindness) and karnua (compassion) one
should have interact in the most human and generous way, following the Meddler
or Eight fold path one have to achieve not only individual happiness but also
discern how to build a peaceful and healthy world in which people live together
friendly and harmoniously – these ideas and ideas of Buddhism gave birth to the
concept of Engaged Buddhism, which has become a great movement now.
Now, in modern time, actually
many of the Buddhist centers in the west as well as in the Asian countries are
now successfully using eco-friendly services and supporting local initiatives
and getting good result for prosperity, progress, development, vigor, dynamism
in the atmosphere with freshness of air, water, crops, flowers, fruits etc. for
the bliss of nature. Applied Buddhism teaches how to live harmony with the
inner and outer world and keep the environment clean, green, fresh, congenial,
nature, earth full of green leaves, flowers of various colors and fragments and
fruits giving elixir and delight for health and mind; Green Buddhists have been
striving for better world tomorrow. Let us all make it more successful for a
dream society and glorious civilization in our beloved planet Earth in the
world.
Bibliography:-
1. Adhikarana,
E.W., Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Buddhist cultural center, Srilanka, 1994.
2. Bode,
Mabel Haynes, The Pali literature of Burma, The Royal Asiatic society of Great
Braitain and Ireland, London, 1966.
3. Bischoff,
Roger, Buddhism in Myanmar a short History; The wheel publication, kondy,
Srilanka, 1995.
4. Bista,
Dor. Bahadur, people of Nepal 4th edtion, 1980.
5. Chatterjee,
Suchandana and Sengupta, Anita (ed.) contemporary Buddhism comparative studies
on Eurasia and South Asia, Moulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies.
Kolkata, 2011.
6. Chatterjee
Suchandana, Sengupta, Anita and Bhattacharya Susmita, (ed.) op.cit, 2012.
7. Ch’en,
Kenneth, Buddhism in China A Historical Servey, Princepton University Press,
New Jersey, 1973.
8. Ghosh,
Lipi, (ed.), Connectivity and Beyond Indo-Thai Relations Through Ages, The
Asiatic Society, Kolkata, 2009.
9. Hazra,
Kanai Lal, Buddhism in Srilanka, Buddhist World Press, New Delhi, 2009.
10. Hazra,
Kanai Lal, Lamaism of Tibet and The Dalai Lamas, Buddhist World Press, New
Delhi, 2012.
11. Kapur-Fia,
Alexandar R, Thailand Buddhism Society and Women. Abhinav publications, New
Delhi, 1998.
12. Joldan,
Sonam, Ladakh’s Traditional ties with Buddhist Tibet, Kalpaz publications, New
Delhi, 2012.
13. Naidu,
Sushil K., Buddhism in Myanmar, Kulinga publications, Delhi, 2008.
14. Piyadeus,
Ven. Galayaye, Perera, Prof. Lakshman and Wijetusge, Prof. Ratna, (ed.)
Buddhism in the West, World Buddhist Foundations, U.K. London, 2005.
15. Sangharakklita,
Tibetan Buddhism, an Introduction, Windhorse publications, Birmingham, 1999.
16. Shakspo,
Nawang Tsering, A cultural History of Ladakh. Centre for Research on Ladakh,
Ladakh, 2010.
17. Skilton,
Andrew, A concise History of Buddhism, Windhorse publications, Birmingham,
1994.
18. Starr,
Frederick, Korean Buddhism, Pilgrims publishing, Varanasi, 2006.
19. Vaziri,
Mostafa, Buddhism in Iran, an anthropological approach to Traces and
influences, Palgrave, Macmillan, 2012.
20. Wyatt,
David K., Studies in Thai History, Silhworm Books, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 1994.
21. Yashpal,
Dr., Buddhism in Japan, Kalinga publications, Delhi, 2008.
22. Yashpal, Dr., Buddhism in Thailand, Kalinga
publications, Delhi, 2007.
Thanks for the post. If you wanna know about Buddhism and visit some really amazing places associated with this religion then you must visit China. This is the nation with most of the population following Buddhism.
ReplyDeleteRegards:
China Road Map