Sumanapal Bhikkhu
The third ruler of the Mauryan Empire,
king Asoka (c. 304-323 BC) or Asokavardhan embraced Buddhism after the bloody
conquest of Kalinga according to Buddhist tradition emperor Asoka is the first
great royal patron of Buddhism.1 His contributions to the
dissemination of Buddhism are profound. However, this short essay will focus on
his contributions only in three major aspects. First is to study king Asoka’s
contribution to popularize stupa construction. Second is to analyze Asoka’s
contribution through his support of the Third Buddhist Council and these three
major contributions of Emperor Asoka
have created a prolonged impact on the development of Buddhism throughout the
centuries. For instance, the stupa building activity after he constructed
84,000 stupas and distributed the stupas to places around the world. Upon
modern day, the Buddhist community still practices the construction of stupa,
such as the Buddha Memorial Center constructed by Fo Guang Shan in Taiwan that
includes Indian and Chinese styles of stupa architecture. Furthermore, the
significant results of conducting the Third Buddhist Council are the
recognition of Buddhism as a world religion and spread of Theravada Buddhism in
Southeast Asia. The effect of pilgrimage activity carried out by Asoka is
astonishing, monuments constructed by Asoka has provided notable as World Heritage
Sites and most of the sacred sites are continuously visited by Buddhists around
the world. Eventually, famous Buddhist pilgrimage sites have been recognized
and the activity of paying pilgrimage has become an important practice for
Buddhists.
The following sections of the
writing are to elaborate further these three major aspects in order to analyze
Emperor Asoka’s contribution to the propagation of Buddhism.
It is suggested that Emperor Asoka
is the first Indian king who promoted the growing popularity of stupa worship.
Referring to two Chinese version texts, they recorded that King Asoka collected
the Buddha relics from past seven stupas and later he built 84,000 stupas to
enshrine the relics throughout the Indian subcontinent and overseas countries.1a
This event is also recorded in the Samantapasadika.1b
It states that king Asoka built 84,000 viharas as well as 84,000 stupas.
Insofar, Chinese sources, for instance the Record of miraculous responses to
the Three Jewels in China (Ji shenzhou
sanbao gantong lu,) and a Further Collection of Essays on Buddhism and the
Forest of Gems in the Garden of the Dharma state that among the 84,000 stupas,
nineteen (19) Asokan Stupas were sent to China in the 7th century
A.D.1c. Venerable Master Xuanzang also recorded that he had seen
many Asokan Stupas and Caityas in India.
The accuracy of these records is
also proven through the study of archeology. Archeologist have unearthed many
stupas, and the oldest parts of the stupas often date back to Asoka’s time.2
There are stupas still preserved today which are suggested to be built by
Emperor Asoka, such as the Deorkothar Stupas in Madhya Pradesh, India, and the
Asoka Stupa, in Taxila, which was erected in 276-232 B.C., and is also known as
Dharmarajka Stupa. 3 The original stupa of the Great Sanchi Stupa
was a brick stupa erected by by Asoka where the Buddha’s kayadhatu was
enshrined. Presently, Sanchi Stupa has been declared as a World Heritage Site
by UNECSO. Moreover, in China, for example, it is suggested that Asokan Stupa
of the Asoka Temple in Ningbo city and the Buddha’s finger relic of Famen
Temple in Mainland China are parts of the nineteen Asokan Stupas4 in
China. In Laos, the original stupa at that Luang is claimed to enclosed a piece
of the Buddha’s breastbone distributed by Asoka 5. Besides the
distribution of stupas as found in many Buddhist countries around the world,
Asoka’s stupa building activity has also deeply influenced many Buddhist
leaders in all Buddhist countries. Stupa construction can generate significant
positive impact on the propagation of Buddhism. In Burma (modern Myanmar), the
past Prime Minister U Nu, made innumerable small stupas.6
According to Chinese history, it
is stated that at least two emperors emulated Asoka with stupa building
activity. First was Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty (581-604) who erected 113
stupas in all 80 prerectures of his empire in 601-604. Second, King Qian Chu
(948-978) of the Wu yue Kingdom of the Five Dynasties made 84,000 miniature
bronze stupas, namely Asoka Stupas, in which Buddhist sutras were enclosed. The
miniature Asoka Stupas were buried in all the famous mountains of China.
Eventually, in 1975, 15 miniature Asoka Stupas, with the illustration of the
Jataka Tales, were unearthed from the underground palace of the Thousand
Buddhas Pagoda in Jin hua, Zhejiang Province 7. These 15 miniature
Asoka Stupas are strong archeological evidence of the existence of King Qian
Chu’s 84,000 miniature bronze stupas. The legend of Asoka’s 84,000 stupas not
only motivated the emperors of China to build stupas, but also the legend has
become a popular subject for mural paintings in China. One of these examples is
found on the south wall of Cave 220 in the Dun-huang Caves8. The
mural depicts a large hand covering the Sun with radiating beams which
encompass twelve stupas to symbolize the 84,000 stupas built by King Asoka. In
the Chinese history of stupa construction, the Asokan Stupa is considered to
have its own unique stupa architectural style and is one of the major shapes of
Chinese Buddhist stupas.
The tradition of stupa
architecture continued to flourish in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Java and North Asian countries
9. Thus, King Asoka is said to be the first Indian king who promoted
growing popularity of worship.
The event of the Third Buddhist
Council is only recorded in the Sinhalese sources, such as the Dipavamsa (VII, 34-42; 44-59), Mahavamsa (V, 267-82), and the Samantapasadika (pp.60-61)10.
During the reign of Asoka, Sangha received monetary support from state and
became very rich and prosperous. An unfortunate consequence at the time was
that the monastic community attracted unworthy recruits who solely sought the
wealth and benefits. They were not only lacks in their practices, also
promulgated the heretical doctrines. Finally, the dissension between the monastic’s
resulted in a schism.
Concerning the harmony of Sangha,
Asoka had erected pillar edicts and rock edicts to warn against the schism. The
pillar edicts at Sanchi, Sarnath and Kausambi for example all warned against
schisms in the monastic community and declared the community and dressed in a
white robe. This kind of decree warning schisms was also included in the minor
Rock Edicts.
Eventually, the Third Buddhist
Council which was patronized by Emperor Asoka and directed under the leadership
of Moggaliputta Tissa with 1000 elder Bhikkhus was held for nine months at the
Asokarama in Pataliputra. The main purposes of conduction this council was to
purify the Sangha and to disrobe the heretics in order to unite the community.
The most significant outcome of the Council was that Moggaliputta Tissa
compiled a book called the Kathavatthupakarana
refuting the heretical doctrines. Originally was written in Pali and is still
preserved in Sri Lanka. The Abhidhamma
Pitaka was included as Buddhavacana
in this Council, and the teaching approved and accepted by this Council was
known as Theravada. Additionally, a momentous result of the Council was to dispatch
Buddhist missionaries under Asoka’s patronage to nine different countries for
the purpose of propagation of Buddhism.
It is claimed that Asoka also
sent his envoys to the different places as a part of Dharmavijaya (conquest by
Dharma), such as Seleucid Empire (Middle Asia), Egypt, Macedonia, Cyrene
(Libya), and Epirus (Greece and Albania). It was first in Buddhist history that
Buddhist monks were formally assigned to foreign countries to propagate
Buddhism; these Buddhist missionary activities upgraded Buddhism to the status
of a world religion. Clearly, this is the great contribution of King Asoka to
Buddhism. This council harmonized members of the Sangha as well as
internationalized Buddhism.
Another important contribution of
King Asoka to the development of Buddhism was sending his daughter Theri
Sanghamitta with the sacred Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka. This decision marked a
significant moment in the history of Buddhism both in India and Sri Lanka.
Sanghamitta was the first Buddhist bhiksuni who went abroad for a religious
task. She established the order of nuns (Bhikkhuni-sasana) in Sri Lanka, and
later, it was Sinhalese Bhikksunis who went to China to transmit the Bhikkhuni
Vinaya, and the Order of Chinese Bhikkhunis was formally recognized. When the
Southern Traditional Bhikkhuni Vinaya vanished in India, Sri Lanka and other
parts of the world, Venerable Master Hsing Yun went to Bodh Gaya in 1998 to
revive to Bhikkhuni Vinaya of the Southern Buddhist tradition. Without the
initial efforts taken by Asoka to send Buddhist missionaries to other
countries, Buddhism would not have flourished to become the world’s fourth
largest religion. Mahinda and Sanghamitta introduced the Theravada tradition to
Sri Lanka and following their foot-print other monks spread it into South-East
Asia. These actives produced essential results in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma)
and other places in South-East Asia.
In the course of time, after
Buddhism declined and disappeared in the land of its origin, Sri Lanka becomes
an important centre. It took the leading role in spreading Theravada Buddhism,
and disseminating it throughout South-East Asia. As for the sacred Bodhi tree,
it is claimed that the original Bodhi tree in Buddha Gaya was destroyed and
later was re-transported from Sri Lanka.
Likewise, the evidence of Asoka’s
missions is also proven by archeological research and evidences. It is
suggested that the relics of some of the elders mentioned in the Mahavamsa have been uncovered by
archaeologists at Sanchi, and most Buddhists in all the countries referred to
commonly trace the arrival of the faith in their land to these Asokan envoys 11.
For instance, people on the Indus still attribute the introduction of Buddhism
“beyond the river” to Asoka’s missionaries in the 3rd century B.C. 12.
The Bhilsa Tope inscription discovered by Cunningham in the Tope No.2 of Sanchi
group records in letters of 3rd century, on the inner lid of the
relic-urn “Supurusa Majjhima” the teacher of all Himalaya. William Geiger
concludes that these were the funeral urns of Majjhantika who converted Kashmir
to Buddhism 13.
Archaeological research at Nakon Pathom has discovered many Buddhist
icons such as Dharmacakras (Wheel of Law), the Buddha’s footprints and seals,
as well as inscriptions in Pali language. Thus, it is claimed that the first
form Buddhism introduced into Thailand was Theravada Buddhism 14. Buddhism was introduced to Nakon Pathom of
Suvarnabhumi by Thera Sona and Uttara. Hitherto, Phra Pathom Chedi (Pathama
Chetiya) popularly believed to have been built in commemoration of the visit of
Asoka’s missionaries Sona and Uttara. This Chetiya was most likely erected in
third or fourth century B.C.15.
Since Asoka ruled during third century B.C., it can be reasonably argued
that Buddhism first took root in Thailand in the third century B.C. 16.
It is clear that efforts of Asoka
were largely responsible for the popularization of the teachings of the Buddha
within and beyond India. It was Asoka who primarily paved the way for the
Buddhist missionaries to spread Buddhism to Central Asia, China, Japan, and
Tibet in the north, and to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and other countries in
the south.
According to the Asokavadana, the original Chinese texts,
after Asoka constructed 84,000 stupas, he wished to erect more in the regions
through which the Buddha had travelled. Upagupta too him to visit Lumbinivana
where the Buddha was born, Kapilavastu, the Great Departure of Prince
Siddhartha, Buddha Gaya where the Buddha achieved Enlightenment, Varanasi where
the Buddha conducted the First Teachings,
Sravasti where the Buddha performed the Great Miracle, Samkasya where
the Buddha descended from the heaven, and finally Kusinagara where the Buddha
entered Parinirvana 17. During his visits, Asoka erected stupas,
shrines, rock edicts, and pillars in all of these sites to commemorate the life
of the Buddha. Archeologists have found fifteen pillars, and of these fifteen
pillars, ten consist of Asoka’s edicts. Among the Asoka pillars, the most
famous one is the Asoka Pillar at the Sarnath site in Madhya Pradesh with a
four-lion capital, which was later adopted as the national emblem of the modern
Indian republic. The four-lion capital, originally was a Dharmacakra capital,
is considered the earliest example of Buddhist sculpture and is housed in
Sarnath Museum18.
In addition, in terms of Buddhist
symbols, the Asokan Pillar has gradually become one of the Buddhist symbols
easily found in Buddhist temples in many Buddhist countries. A similar intact
Asoka Pillar with four-lion capital crowned with Asoka Chakra or Dharmachakra
can be found at Wat U Mong, in Chinag Mai, Thailand. In Wuxi, Ningshan, China,
a so-called “Asoka Pillar” was built, and it is known as the First Stone Pillar
in China. This is evidence of the influence of the Asokan Pillar in the
Buddhist world.
Pilgrimages taken by Asoka can be
traced from his pillar edicts, such as the Lumbini Pillar Edict, where Asoka
referred to his visit, in the twentieth year of his consecration, to the
Buddha’s birthplace where he constructed a stone monument and set up a pillar
as well as exempted the village of taxes. He also undertook a pilgrimage to the
Sambodhi, “the place of enlightenment of the Buddha,” in the tenth year of his
consecration 19. In modern
day it is called Rummindei; an Asokan Stupa marks the spot where two dragons
bathed the newborn Prince with warm and cold water. The Asoka Pillar indicates
that the emperor made a pilgrimage to Sakyamuni’s birthplace20. By the time Xuan zang visited the place, the
pillar had broken in half, and the lower section, which carries the edict of
Rummindei, still remains.
At Buddha Gaya, the second Great Wonder,
Emperor Asoka built the first temple, the Mahabodhi Temple, which is now
recognized as the earliest Buddhist temple constructed entirely of brick.
Currently, this temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
At Kusinagara,
the fourth Great Wonder, Asokan Stupas and pillars mark the sites of the last
meal at Cunda’s house, the Parinirvana and the distribution of the relics. The
great stupa of the Distribution of the relics has not yet been excavated. When
Faxian and Xuazang visited Kusinagara, the Parinirvanacaitya erected near the
grove of Salas where the Buddha entering Parinirvana was still in good
condition. It is suggested that the Parinirvanacaitya yields seal of the
“Mahaparinirvanacaitya”, and also a copper urn sealed by an inscription plate
(text of the pratityasamutpada in Skt.),
specifying that it had been placed in the Parinirvanacaitya21. Thus,
there is no doubt that is the original site of the Buddha entering Parinirvana.
In the third
century B.C., Asoka erected shrines, pillars or stupas to commemorate the
places of the Buddha’s life. Today it has become famous holy landmarks for
modern day pilgrims to pay pilgrimage and cultivate their spiritual practice.
Moreover, the pilgrimage activity performed by Asoka is considered as a premier
in history as Asoka has thoroughly discovered the sacred sites of Buddhism.
This activity has left significant traces for later archeologists to ensure
Indian historical records. In Short, it can be concluded that Asoka erected
pillars, stupas or other monuments at the sacred sites not only making
contribution to the development of Buddhism in Indian, but also preserving
enormous historical information.
Essentially,
practice of making pilgrimages to four sacred sites fulfill the teachings of
the Buddha in the Maha-Parinibbana
Suttanta, where the Buddha instructs his followers to make pilgrimage to
the sites of the four main events of his life after he entered Parinivana. The
four sites are stated as above, and the pilgrimage activity has become one of
the important practices in Buddhism. Asoka is claimed to be the promoter and
initiator of pilgrimage. In short, in this Study, the Contributions of king
Asoka the great a true dayado of the saddhamma emphasizes three major issues
that are promotion of stupa worship, internationalization Buddhism as a World
religion and development of Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
Notes and References:
1.
Bapat, P.V., 2500 years of Buddhism, (Govt. of India,
New Delhi, 2010), p.56.
1a. Such as Ayuwan zhuan (Asokavadana T2042) seven fascicles, by Parthian Faqin
and
Ayuwan
jing (Asokarajasutra T2043) ten fascicles, by Funan (modern Cambodia)
Samghavarman or Samghapala (460-524) in
an abridged version in 512 B.C.,
1b. The Southern Buddhist
Traditional text), eighteen fascicles, translated by Samghabhadra
(d.u.) into the Chinese version.
1c. (Guanghong mingji written by
Dao-xuan (596-667), Fayuan zhulin fascicle 38, written
Daoshi (?-683).
2.
In his book Journey to the West in Great Tang, Hirakawa,
Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism from
Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana, trans. Paul Groner, Buddhist Tradition Series,
(Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 1993), p.101.
3.
(Punjab, Pakistan,) Davis K. Thanjan, Pebbles, (USA:
Bookstand Publishing, 2010), p.176.
5.
Claire Boobbyer, Andrew Spooner, and Joel O’Tailan,
Footprint Travel Guides, 2008, p.524.
6.
Richard Gombrich, “Asoka-The Great Upasaka”, in
Contribution of Buddhism to World Civilization and Culture, ed. P.N. Chopra
(New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd, 1983), p.9.
7.
An example of a miniature stupa can be found from this
site: http://pilgrimage.asiasociety.org/artifacts/miniature-stupa-illustrations-jataka-tales.
8.
Qiang Ning, Art,
religion and politics in Medieval China: The Dun-huang Cave of the Zhai Family.
(Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2004), p.97.
9.
L. M. Joshi, “Buddhist Contribution to Art and
Architecture”, in ed. P.N. Chopra, Contribution
of Buddhism to World Civilization and Culture, (India: S. Chand &
Company Ltd, 1983), p.164.
10. E.
Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, (France: Peeters Press, 1988), p.272
11. John
S. Strong, The Legend of King Asoka: A
study and Translation of the Asokavadana, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1989), p.25.
12. Dr.
Sarla Khosla, “Chapter 16 Central Asia’s Debt to Buddhism”, in Contribution of Buddhism to World
Civilization and Culture, ed. P.N. Chopra (New Delhi: S. Chand &
Company Ltd, 1983), p.136.
13. Dipamvamsa and Mahavamasa, ibid, p.137.
14. Upendra
Thakur, “Chapter 13 Buddhism’s Contribution to Thai Culture”, in Contribution
of Buddhism to World Civilization and Culture ed. P.N Chopra (New Delhi: S.
Chand & Company Ltd. 1983), p.95.
15. Promsak
Jermsawatdi, Thai Art with Indian Influenced, (New Delhi: Abhinav Publications,
1979), p.21.
16. Upendra
Thakur. op.cit., p.95.
17. E.
Lamotee, op.cit., p.243.
18. L.M
Joshi., op.cit., p.165.
19. N.A.
Jayawickrama, “Asoka’s Edicts and the Third Buddhist Council,” in King Asoka
and Buddhism Historical and Literary Studies, ed. Anuradha Senaviratna, (Sri
Lanka: Buddhism Association Inc. Buddhanet e Book Library, 1994), p.95.
20. E.
Lamotte, op.cit. p.315.
21. E.
Lamotte, op.cit. p.320.
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