Bhikkhu Sumanapal
Goutama Buddha attained Enlightenment at the age of thirty five. He died
when he was eighty years old. So he got forty five years to develop and
elaborate his teachings.1
So he had a very long period to preach his doctrine. The Sangha was established
by him for the purpose of preaching his Dhamma. The Buddha had two classes’
followers namely the monks or bhikkhus and the gahapatis or householders. The
bhikkhus were the more earnest band among the followers of the Buddha who had
left their to live 'a homeless life'.2
Archaeological
and literacy evidence prove the rapid expansion of the Bhikkhuņi Sangha in the
next few hundred years, the Bhābru and Schism pillar Edicts of Asoka mention
Bhikkhus as well as Bhikkhuņis. After the reign of Asoka, both before and
during the Sunga – Maurya period, the donative inscriptions of the
Sanchi-stupa, the Bharhut stupa and the Bodh-Gaya railings give the information
about Bhikkhuņis and various places or centres situated near about sanchi and
Bharhut with which nuns were associated. Junnar Buddhist cave inscription
records the erection of a nunnery (Bhikkhuņis -upasaya). In the eight
inscriptions of Amaravati, mentions of upasakas, Upasikas, Bhikkhus and
Bhikkhuņis are found. The existence Bhikkhuņi orders at Mathura till the
5th and 6th century of the Christian era is proved by the account of
Fa-Hien. In describing Mo-tu-lo (Mathura). Bana is his Harsha Charita
Clearly mentioned the existence of Bhikkhuņi Order. I–Tsing visited India
in the last quarter of the seventh century A.D. and he gave information about
nuns. There is not any Indian monk, Brahminical or Buddhist, containing
references to the Bhikkhuņis in the 9th or 10th Century A.D.3 The existences of women
recluses were prevalent in India before the Buddhist era.4 In the early Vedas it is found that female Rsis
composed religious hymns together with the Rsis.5 In the Upanisadic age too, woman strove Vigorously
after spiritual perfection. Tree after her designation was Brahmavadini.6 Jain texts also give
evidence of the existence of women ascetics.7 At the time of the Buddha, women struggled desperately
to renounce the world and to be free from worldly bondage.8
At first Buddha did not allow women to enter the Sangha and there are
some debates regarding the formation of the bhikkhuni Sangha. The Apadana9 tells us that it was the
Buddha's wife. Yasodhara10 who
prayed to him for the permission of ordination of women but the permission was
not granted. But according to the Vinaya pitaka11 it was the Buddha's foster mother who requested him
to allow women to enter the Sangha. Miss I B Horner says that in all probability
Yasodhara was the first women to enter the Sangha as a nun and Mahapajapati
Goutami joined the order after the death of her husband king Shuddhodana, the Buddha's father. However,
book like Apadana and Avadana mention Yasodhara as the founder of bhikkhuni Sangha.12
But the Vinaya pitaka which is a much earlier work gives the credit to Goutami.
It is said that after the demise of Shuddhodana, the Buddha's father, a rivalry
started between the Santa's and the Koliyas regarding the water of Rohini River.
The Buddha solved the problem and after that began to live at Nigrodharama
(Banyan Park) of Kapilabastu.13
At that time Goutami came there and said to him, "It would be well, Lord,
if women should be allowed to renounce their homes and enter the homeless state
under the doctrine and discipline proclaimed by Tathagata. She made the same
request twice more but the Buddha turned down her request on both the
occasions. As a result of this Goutami departed with tears in her eyes.
Later when the Buddha was
residing in the Kutagara Hall of the Mahavana of Vesali from Kapilabastu Goutami arrived there with her followers, most
of them were Sakyan women. They were wearing saffron coloured robes as the
symbol of a life of renunciation. They travelled the entire distance on foot
and when they reached there they were looking sad and gloomy and had tears in
their eyes. They were also tired and their plight melted the heart of Ananda,
one of the chief disciples of the Buddha. He requested the Buddha repeatedly
for granting them the permission for entering the Sangha and the Buddha acceded
to the request, albeit reluctantly. However, he imposed eight conditions and
Goutami driven by the intense desire of becoming a nun agreed to follow all of
them. Thus Ananda and Goutami should be regarded as the founders of bhikkhuni
Sangha. So Mahapajapati Goutami was the first woman to fight women's rights to
monastic life and to receive ordination. At the initial stage monks were
entrusted with the responsibility of giving ordination to women but soon if was
found that women were feeling perplexed and discovered when asked the questions
essential for upasampada (higher ordination). As a result the rule of
ordinating women by nuns only was introduced.
The eight rules mentioned above gave the nuns a position inferior to
monks but in spite of this subordinate position they accepted it as their
desire for knowledge and emancipation was very intense.
The longed for a new life that is free
from the bondage of the family. After Goutami and her followers had accepted
these conditions the order of the nuns was well established in villages and as
well as in towns. Let us now make a brief survey of these Garu-dhammas
proclaimed by the Buddha.
I) According to the first rule, the nuns are
acceded a subordinate position when compared with the monks. Even if a nun is
more experienced, aged, intelligent and learned than a monk she must bow down
to him. The nuns cannot make resolution for Buddhahood. At first they have
to try to become male and then they would attain the eligibility to try for
Buddhahood.
II) A nun is not allowed to spend the rainy season in a district where
there is no monk. This rule can never be transgressed.14 This rule proves that nuns occupy a inferior position
to monks. In those days women were not as advanced as they are now and so it
was not for them to live alone. They were not even allowed to spend the rainy
season in a monastery where there is no monk. Perhaps the socio religious
condition prevailing in the Buddha's time impelled him introduce those
rules.
III) According to the third rule, the nuns had to see monks twice in a
month. Both the monks and the nuns had to attend the uposatha15 ceremony but the nuns
were not empowered to fix the dates of their uposatha.
IV) Pavarana ceremony was introduced by the Buddha in order to promote
the life of harmony among the members of the Sangha. According to this rule,
the nuns had to confess their guilt in front of the monks but the monks did not
have to confess their guilt in front of the nuns. So this rule was
discriminatory against the nuns. Later the Buddha realised it and allowed the
nuns to hold their own Pavarana16 ceremony.
V) This rule says 'Garudhammam ajjhapannya bhikkhuniya ubhotosamghe
pakkhamanattam caritabham ayampi so anatikkamaniya, cullavagga-PTS. X, p. 255.
This means 'when an almswomen who has been guilty of a serious offence is to
undergo the Manatta disciple towards both the Sanghas (Almsmen and almswomen), this
is a rule....never to be transgressed.’17 We do not a very clear
idea as to the nature of the infliction of the Manatta.18 With the passage of time and circumstances the
disciplinary rules against the against the nuns have taken a different shape.
At a later period the Buddha gave the nuns to hold the patimokkha recitation
and the confession of faults especially among themselves.
VI) This rule says, "Dve vassani chasu dhammesu sikkhitasikkhaya
sikkhamanaya ubhotosamghe upasampada19
pariyesitabha, ayam pi......anatikkamaniyo. (cullavagga. PTS. X, p. 255). This
means 'when an almswomen, as novice (sikkhamana) has been trained for two years
in the six pacittiya rules (p.63-68) of bhikkhuni patimokkha, would be asked to
leave both the Sanghas. This is a rule ... not to be transgressed.20 This rule serves as a
measure to put the entry of incompetent women into the Sangha under check. The
community of nuns was empowered to ordain the female novice but they could not
give higher ordination. The ordinary nuns were required to remain for two years
as novice and had to train themselves in six rules without any break. In the
matter of ordination there was a difference between male and female novices.
The male novices have to observe ten precepts21 whereas the female observe only six. Apparently women
had fewer duties and rights than men. However, the nuns had to undergo a
stricter process for their recruitment. With the introduction of these rules
the Buddha tried to limit the entry of unworthy women in the community of
nuns.
VII) This rule says, 'Na bhikkhuniya kenaci pariyayena bhikkhu
akkositabbo paribhasitabbo, ayam pi....annatikammaniyo'. (Cullavagga, PTS. p. 255).
This means, "From henceforth official admonition of almswomen by almsmen
is not forbidden. This is a rule.....never to be transgressed."22 This rule clearly forbids
the nuns to rebuke monks. The Buddha never definitely bade the monks to be
polite in their treatment of the nuns, however, the use of harsh or slanderous
words by the monks to the nuns was also strictly forbidden.
VIII) This
is another rule which definitely recognizes the inferiority of women. She
had no right to speak in front of men or admonish anybody. But the
Bhikkhus had the right to admonish nuns. It is true that some Theras, but
not all, were generally famous for their exceptional moral conduct vast bearing
and spiritual attainments, and the nuns generally prefer to hear sermons from
them. Some of the nuns were also famous for vast learning and
erudition. So this rule is definitely an instance of the placing of women
imposition of inferiority to the men. It also refused to allow them for
becoming independent to manage their own Order and the raAtify their own proceedings.
"The group of the eight disciplinary ordinances is to
be regarded as the kernel of the Bhiksuni Vinaya. They are the exclusive
original property of the nuns' Disciplinary Code, in which their position in
the Buddhist Order is determined, as well as their obligations and relations to
the monks. The Bhiksuni-Pratimoksa-Vibhanga cannot claim such
originality. It is composed along the lines of the Bhiksu-Pratimoksa
Vibhanga, which is the very prototype of it."23 However, we have learned that the eight 'Garu-Dhamma'
have their corresponding readings in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tebetan as
well.24 This indicates
that they belong to a common heritage of the Buddhist Order which reaches to
ancient times even prior to division into Mahasanghika and Sthavira i.e. before
C. 350 B.C., through their sequence is not in full concordance in the different
schools. Eight schools has its own set of Patimokkha-Rules, the main body
is that a set of original rules which every school shares. More rules are
formulated in addition to the original rules handed down from Buddha's
time. Dr. Chatsumarn Kabilsingh has given a valuable chart where the
comparative numbers of rules in each section of the Bhikkhuni-Patimokkha in
each school may be seen as follows:
Th.
Dh.
Mhs.
Msg.
Sar. M Sar
Parajika 30
8 8
8
8
8
Samghadisesa
8 17 17
19 17
20
Nissaggiya-Pacittiya 17
30
30
30 30
33
Pacittiya
166
178
210
141
178
180
Patidesaniya
8 8
8
8
8
8
Sekhiya
75 100 100 77
106
90
Adhikarana-samatha 7 7 7 7
7
7
____________________________________________________________________
Total 311 348
380
290 354
346
Two group of minor rules seem to differ greatly in all schools, namely
'Pacittiya' and 'Sekhiya' while the first three major groups of rules remain
more or less unity.25
There is no Aniyata–Section like Bhikkhu-Patimokkha. Here
arrangement of the schools follows according to chronological order.
In Bhikkhuni Sangha nuns had not the
right to speak in front of men or admonish anybody. But the monks could
admonish the nuns. Though there were many nuns who were renowned for their
achievements in respect of morality and spiritual attainments they were placed in
a position of inferiority in respect of the monks. In this way they were denied
of the privilege of managing their own affairs in the Order.
We find a difference of opinion among
the modern scholars regarding the eight disciplinary ordinances. The Buddha was
not sure whether the monks would be able to retain their celibacy in the
presence of nuns. So he proclaimed that these rules would have to be observed
for the entire life. The Buddha believed that it would be beneficial to retain
a safe distance between the monks and the nuns and so he dictated the nuns for
the life long observation of these rules. Apart from that the acceptance and
implementation of these rules were considered were an indication of the nuns’
reverence and loyalty towards the sangha. However the Buddha’s anxiety about
the stability of the order proved justified when trouble broke out due to the
frequent meetings of the monks and the nuns. To an uninformed reader the Buddha
might appear somewhat unsympathetic towards women. But actually he had a very
sound knowledge of human nature. He preached his doctrine for the welfare of
humanity. He was uncertain whether monks and nuns would be able to maintain
their celibacy if they were allowed to come close contact with the opposite
sex. So he established to separate sangha. We should bear in mind the fact that
in the days of the Buddha women were far behind men in almost every respect.
Naturally by virtue of their position and physical ability the monks held a
superior position in the sangha. The relation between the monks and the nuns in
the sangha was that of the teacher and the student. So naturally the teachers
enjoyed a few privileges that were denied to the students.
It is said, “The group of the eight
disciplinary ordinances is to be regarded as the kernel of the Bhiksuni Vinaya.
They are the exclusive original property of the Nuns’ Disciplinary Code, in
which their position in the Buddhist order is determined, as well as their
obligations and relations to the monks. The Bhiksuni–Pratimoksha- Vibhanga
cannot claim such originality. It is composed along the lines of Bhiksu
–Pratimoksha Vibhangawhich is the very prototype of it.” We find corresponding
readings of the eight “Garu Dhamma’ in languages like Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese
and Tibetan.
The women had to pass through more
difficult hurdles before being admitted in the sangha. Sickness, insanity, criminality,
pregnancy, lactation were the causes that debarred them from entering the
sangha. The also needed the consent and permission of their father or husband
before entering the homeless life. Women irrespective of their marital or
social status were accepted in the sangha as nuns. Though the nuns were
accorded an inferior position in the sangha when compared to the monks their
spiritual attainment was equally glorious when compared to their male
counterparts. Khema, Upalavanna, Dhammadinna, Bhadda Kundalakesa, Patachara,
Nanda, etcetera are considered as the role models for the nuns. Meditation,
training novices, studying patimokkha occupied very important position in the
life of a nun. According to some scholars the Buddha might have hesitated to
accept women in the order for some other reasons also. One possible reason
might be his compassion for women especially his aunt and foster mother Gotami.
The monks and the nuns had to collect their food by begging in the locality.
Sometimes they received very little food. The Buddha thought that it would be
impossible for Gotami and five hundred women belonging to the royal family to
collect their food in that waybecause they were not accustomed to such
hardships in life. Secondly at that time there was no monastery. The life of
the monks was difficult because they had to live under trees and in caves. The
Buddha thought that women would not be able to endure such a difficult life.Again,
at that time the Buddha was being criticized by some people on the charge of
destroying the family order. Had he agreed to accept the five hundred women
into the Sangha it would have resulted in the break up of five hundred
families. The Buddha must have these thoughts in his mind when he was
repeatedly turning down the requests of the women. But lasted he came to know
that the husbands of those women had already left household life and then he
realized that by ordaining women he would not be breaking those families. Then
he agreed to open the gates of the Sangha to women.
It is also possible that the idea of
women leaving the household and joining the order did not enter in his mind
before. Only after the death of his father when his foster mother wanted to
become a nun such an idea started to work in his mind. In fact it was
unthinkable at that time that women would live a homeless life. Even
modern India women generally do not leave the family.
But when the Buddha came to the conclusion that enlightenment was a possibility
for each and every human being he allowed women to enter the sangha.
The Bhikkhu sangha was founded about
seven or eight years before the Bhikkhuni Sangha. Perhaps that is oneof the
reasonsthe Buddha made the Bhikkhuni Sangha subordinate to the Bhikkhu Sangha.
They were subordinate not in the sense of master and slave but in the sense of
elder brother and younger sister.
When women first entered the Sangha the
monks expected them to clean the monastery and wash their dishes, robes and
rugs. Lay people noticed this and reported the matter to the Buddha and in
response the Buddha established rules for monks about how to behave with nuns.
For instance, he established precepts that forbade monks to ask the nuns to do their
personal jobs like washing robes and so on.
At the time of the Buddha Buddhism was
confined mainly within the limits Madhyadesa and Pragdesa and it was the great
Maurya emperor Ashoka who propagated Buddhism in distant countries like Ceylon.26 Asoka entrusted his son
Mahinda Thera with the task of taking Buddhism to Ceylon. In his Rock Edict 12
he himself mentioned that he had sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta
to Ceylon. The third Buddhist Council was held in Pataliputra during the reign
of Asoka and the meeting was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa. In the
council it was decided that the law of the Buddha would be preached in foreign countries
and Mahinda was selected as the monk to carry theteachings of Buddhism to
Ceylon. We find a detailed description about his activities in the Dipavamasa
and the Mahavamsa, two famous chronicles of Ceylon. The women of Sri Lanka were
equally zealous for being converted to Buddhism. It is mentioned that Anula,27 the consort of the sub
king Mahanaga, younger brother of the king Devanampiyatissa and the ladies of
the court expressed the desire of taking pabbajja and entering the order. So
princess Sanghamitta, daughter of emperor Ashoka and daughter of Thera Mahinda
was sent to Ceylon. She also took a branch of the Bodhi Tree from Bodhgaya with
her. After arriving in Ceylon, Their Sanghamitta initiated Anula and five
hundred other women to the Buddhist order. After being ordained Anula attained
Arahatship and she was the first woman Arahat28 in the island. Thus, after the ordination of Anula,
the order of female disciples was established in Ceylon. King Devanampiyatissa
set about nunneries for the nuns and the bhikkhuni sangha prospered side by
side with the bhikkhu sangha. From the second century A.D. Chinese men were
ordained as monks. In the early fourth century one Chinese women Ching Chien
was very enthusiastic to become a nun. Although she received sramanerika
ordination from a monk she did not receive Bhikkhuni ordination. In the 4th
and 5th century A.D. the nuns from Ceylon travelled to China and the
Bhikkhuni Sangha was established there. These nuns remained in China and
studied the Chinese language. Their ship owner returned to Ceylon and invited
enough Bhikkhunis from Sri Lanka. One of them was named Tessara. These two
groups of nuns from Sri Lanka gave ordination to more than three hundred
Chinese women at Southern Grove monastery. During the first half of twentieth
century many huge monasteries were in existence in China. Before the communist
take over the monks thought that they were strong and they would be able to
survive. But when the nuns heard about the matter they started migrating to
Taiwan. They brought their resources along with them, began to build nunneries
and became well settled in Taiwan. Later when the Communists took over the
mainland and the monks felt that they were unable to survive under the
communist rule, they migrated to Taiwan in a hurry and arrived there with
almost nothing. The bhikkhuni sangha helped them to reestablish in Taiwan. The
monks still remember their act of kindness and consequently in Taiwan nuns are
respected both by monks and lay people. The nuns far outnumber the monks, are
well educated and have strong communities with their own abbesses.
The first worldwide gathering of nuns,
The International Buddhist Conference of Nuns was held in Bodhgaya from 11th to 17th February 1987. Bhikhunis
of varied discipline inaugurated the conference. Buddhist laid women and nuns
from countries like U.S.A., Canada, U.K., Poland, France, erstwhile West
Germany, Sweden, Australia, Bangladesh, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
India participated in the ceremony. The Conference endeavored to establish
communications and links between Buddhist nuns and lay women and improve the
standard of their educational opportunities, so that all Buddhist women were
united in their practice of the Dhamma. The Conference can be regarded as an
event that signaled the commencement of a new era in the world of the Buddhist
women.29 Buddhism has
tried earnestly to enable women to attain those rights from which they were
deprived from a very long time. It also served to make people aware of the
important position that was held by women in society.30
In the modern world most Buddhist
association in traditionally Buddhist societies are almost entirely male. But
these characteristics are generally unnoticed by people. Women are not
adequately represented in these organizations.
Generally Buddhist women show a lack of
interest in question of power or status. Most of them are more interested in
fulfilling the basic necessities of life rather than accepting the challenges
of leadership. But it is high time for women to start taking responsibilities
in social and religious life otherwise they would forever remain under the
domination of men.
Notes
and References:
1.
S.
Barua, Monastic life of the early Buddhist nuns. p.54.
2.
Vinaya
Pitaka, Vol. II, ed. Hermann Oldenberg, London, Williams Norgate, 1880, p.253.
3.
S.
Barua, Monastic life of the early Buddhist nuns pp. 75-76.
4.
Ibid, p.56.
5.
Mookherjee, Radhakumud, Ancient Indian Education, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi,
1969.p. 75.
6.
Brahmavādins who, according to Katyayana
discoursed on sacred texts, though they might no themselves be authors of
independent works (Feminine – Brahmavādini).
7.
S. Barua, op.cit., p.56.
8.
Ibid,
9.
Apādāna,
Vol. II, Theri Apādāna, P.T.S. No.30, p.592.
10.
Yasodhara
prayed to Buddha three times for giving permission for opening the Order of
Nuns but refused by him. Buddha founded the Bhikkuni Sangha, in
Kapilavattha under the leadership of Gopa.
11.
Vinayapitaka,
Vol.II, p.253.
12.
I.B. Horner, op.cit., p.102.
13.
B.
Bhattacharya, Buddhist women saints of India, p.55.
14.
.
Ibid, Bhikkhuņi Pācittiya 56; Vol. IV, p. 313.
15.
The full moon and new moon days when Bhikkhus
assemble to recite their Fundamental Rules.
16.
The
word pavarana (Sanskrit Prfavarana) means 'Satisfaction of desire, 'fulfilment
of wish' or 'the day of completion of study and meditation (Pali English
Dictionary P.T.S, P.66). This ceremony is held at the end of the
rainretreat (Vassa-vasa) for this reason it may be called the 'Buddhist joy
day'. The Maha Vagga (ed. H. Oldenberg P.11) Contains elaborate rules for
entering upon the rain-retreat and observing the pavarana ceremony.
17.
I.B. Horner, op. cit., p.120.
18.
A
form of disciplinary action.
19.
Upasampada
– It is the higher Ordination which makes one a full-fledged member of the
Sangha. Minimum age limit for the Upasampada is twenty – The
samantapasadika (Vol-I, P.241) mentions eight kinds of Upasampada.
20.
I.B. Horner, op.cit., p.120.
21.
Mahavagga,
1, p.56.
22.
I.B.
Horner, op.cit., p.120.
23.
Gustav
Roth in Introduction of his “ Bhikshuni –Vinaya, p. 111-113.
24.
In her Introduction of “The Bhikkhuni
Patimokkha of the Six Schools”, Dr. Chatusuman kabil singh opines ‘I relalised
the prime importance of the Bhikkhuni Patimokkha of the six schools which have
been preserved in the Chinese Tripitaka. During King Asoka’s time 18schools
were mentioned but the monastic rules of the rest are no more available, for
this reason the monastic rules of six remaining schools became even more
significant and valuable. They are almost the only accessible means to trace to
the various communities of the bhikkhunis in the past history. Gustav Roth in
Introduction of his “ Bhikshuni –Vinaya, p. 1.
25.
Ibid, p. 2, in the table, Th.=Theravada;
Dh.=Dharmagupta; Mhs.=Mahisasaka; Msg.= Mahasanghika; Sar.=Sarvastivada;
M.Sar.=Mulasarvastivada.
26.
Kern,
H. Manual of Indian Buddhism, MotilalBanarasidas pub. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
1898, p.116.
27.
Mahavamsa, Chap. xiv, 56-57; Dipavamsa, ed. Oldenberg,
chap, xii, 82.
28.
Mahavamsa, Ed. William Geiger, chap XIX, p.65.
29.
S.
Barua, op. cit., pp.229-230.
30.
Ibid,
p.72.
